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A Brief History of Cypher text

Scytale

One of the earliest forms of Cryptography is the scytale. (sounds like “Italy” in pronunciation).

The earliest known reference to this type of coded message dates back to the 7th Century B.C. Though it was mentioned that early, the references did not make clear on just how this method of cryptography worked. That is until Plutarch (a Greek historian, biographer, essayist who lived approx 46-120 A.D.) explained the method in his books “Parallel Lives”, in particular Volume 19 which talked about the Spartan General Lysander and how he communicated with his army.

Plutarch goes into detail on just how this method works..As shown in this quote from the aforementioned volume,

“The dispatch-scroll is of the following character. When the ephors send out an admiral or a general, they make two round pieces of wood exactly alike in length and thickness, so that each corresponds to the other in its dimensions, and keep one themselves, while they give the other to their envoy. These pieces of wood they call scytalae. Whenever, then, they wish to send some secret and important message, they make a scroll of parchment long and narrow, like a leathern strap, and wind it round their scytale, leaving no vacant space thereon, but covering its surface all round with the parchment. After doing this, they write what they wish on the parchment, just as it lies wrapped about the scytale; and when they have written their message, they take the parchment off and send it, without the piece of wood, to the commander. He, when he has received it, cannot otherwise get any meaning out of it,--since the letters have no connection, but are disarranged,--unless he takes his own scytale and winds the strip of parchment about it, so that, when its spiral course is restored perfectly, and that which follows is joined to that which precedes, he reads around the staff, and so discovers the continuity of the message. And the parchment, like the staff, is called scytale, as the thing measured bears the name of the measure.” —Plutarch, Lives (Lysander 19), ed. Bernadotte Perrin.

References:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scytale

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch#Parallel_Lives

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LysanderScytale

Caesar Wheel

Another early form of ciphering was the Caesar wheel, also known as the Caesar Cipher.. Named after Julius Caesar (100 B.C. – 44 B.C.) who was documented as having used it.

This was essentially two disks of difference sizes. The smaller one on top of the larger one, joined in the center in such a . Each wheel would then be sectioned along its edge. Each of these sections had a letter of the alphabet. The key is set in advance such that both the sender and receiver what it is. The key was nothing more than a number which indicated the letter shift needed to encode or decode a message.

For example..

” If he had anything confidential to say, he wrote it in cipher, that is, by so changing the order of the letters of the alphabet, that not a word could be made out. “If anyone wishes to decipher these, and get at their meaning, he must substitute the fourth letter of the alphabet, namely D, for A, and so with the others.” —Suetonius, Life of Julius Caesar

This is the easiest of the substitution ciphers. For example , it can be easily reverse engineered without having to know the key used. You’d just have to know the frequency of letters used in the language you. For example, in English if you know that “E” ,“T” and “A” were the most used letters in the alphabet you’d be well on your way to breaking the code.

References:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_cipher

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_frequency

http://www.scholastic.com/spyx/pdfs/Cipher_Wheel.pdf

Performing the Installation stages

• Start installation
• Choosing language, keyboard and storage type
• Selecting hostname, time zone & root password
• Configuring storage devices
• Configuring the boot loader
• Selecting and installing packages
• Completing first boot wizard