https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Klae0010 2026-04-23T08:25:48Z User contributions MediaWiki 1.38.5 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=A_Brief_Early_History_of_Cypher_text&diff=5846 2012-05-04T18:41:42Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Scytale */</p> <hr /> <div>== '''A Brief History of Early Cypher text''' ==<br /> <br /> === '''Scytale''' ===<br /> One of the earliest forms of Cryptography is the scytale. (sounds like “Italy” in pronunciation). <br /> <br /> The earliest known reference to this type of coded message dates back to the 7th Century B.C. Though it was mentioned that early, the <br /> references did not make clear on just how this method of cryptography worked. That is until Plutarch (a Greek historian, biographer, <br /> essayist who lived approx 46-120 A.D.) explained the method in his books “Parallel Lives”, in particular Volume 19 which talked about <br /> the Spartan General Lysander and how he communicated with his army. <br /> <br /> Plutarch goes into detail on just how this method works..As shown in this quote from the aforementioned volume, <br /> <br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;i&gt;“The dispatch-scroll is of the following character. When the ephors send out an admiral or a general, they make two round pieces of <br /> wood exactly alike in length and thickness, so that each corresponds to the other in its dimensions, and keep one themselves, while <br /> they give the other to their envoy. These pieces of wood they call scytalae. Whenever, then, they wish to send some secret and <br /> important message, they make a scroll of parchment long and narrow, like a leathern strap, and wind it round their scytale, leaving no <br /> vacant space thereon, but covering its surface all round with the parchment. After doing this, they write what they wish on the <br /> parchment, just as it lies wrapped about the scytale; and when they have written their message, they take the parchment off and send <br /> it, without the piece of wood, to the commander. He, when he has received it, cannot otherwise get any meaning out of it,--since the <br /> letters have no connection, but are disarranged,--unless he takes his own scytale and winds the strip of parchment about it, so that, <br /> when its spiral course is restored perfectly, and that which follows is joined to that which precedes, he reads around the staff, and <br /> so discovers the continuity of the message. And the parchment, like the staff, is called scytale, as the thing measured bears the name <br /> of the measure.” &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; <br /> :::—Plutarch, Lives (Lysander 19), ed. Bernadotte Perrin.<br /> <br /> The idea behind this method of encryption was transposition. Not too dissimilar to the method used for the Caesar cipher explained later. Unlike the Caesar cipher though, the transposition in this case was achieved by using a rod (staff, baton) of a fixed width. <br /> <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scytale''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch#Parallel_Lives''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LysanderScytale''<br /> <br /> === '''Caesar Wheel'''===<br /> Another early form of ciphering was the Caesar wheel, also known as the Caesar Cipher.. Named after Julius Caesar (100 B.C. – 44 B.C.) who was documented as having used it. <br /> <br /> This was essentially two disks of difference sizes. The smaller one on top of the larger one, joined in the center in such a . Each wheel would then be sectioned along its edge. Each of these sections had a letter of the alphabet. The key is set in advance such that both the sender and receiver what it is. The key was nothing more than a number which indicated the letter shift needed to encode or decode a message.<br /> <br /> For example.. <br /> <br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;i&gt;“If he had anything confidential to say, he wrote it in cipher, that is, by so changing the order of the letters of the alphabet,that not a word could be made out. “If anyone wishes to decipher these, and get at their meaning, he must substitute the fourth letter of the alphabet, namely D, for A, and so with the others.”&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; <br /> :::—Suetonius, Life of Julius Caesar <br /> <br /> Caesar relied on a few things for this cipher to work, in particular the general illiteracy and the ignorance of the common man. What this means is that the average person couldn’t read and those who could would assume the coded message was another language. Now, consider this same cipher can be seen today on your average box of cereal which has activities on the back of the box, you have an idea of just how illiterate the average person was in Caesar’s time. It’s so easy to break, even a caveman—oops, a child can break it. <br /> <br /> All Caesar did was off-set the alphabet by 4 spots. Even without knowing the off-set there are two ways by which to break this code. One is by letter frequency. Knowing which letters are used the most in the dominate language of the cipher. For instance, in English the top five most common letters used are “e”, ”t”, “a”, “o”, and “i”. The second is by brute force. Assuming for a moment that Caesar’s wheel had only 26 spots (one for each letter and no numbers) there would be 25 possibilities. <br /> <br /> As recently as 1915 the Russian Army was using a variation of this cipher, mainly because the more common complicated ciphers were too difficult for their troops to decode. <br /> <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_cipher''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_frequency''<br /> :: ''http://www.scholastic.com/spyx/pdfs/Cipher_Wheel.pdf''<br /> <br /> === '''Jefferson Disk''' ===<br /> <br /> The Caesar Cipher would be the inspiration for Thomas Jefferson many centuries later. In 1795, Jefferson developed a cipher system <br /> with used a series of 36 wheels (or disks) positioned along a central spinal. Each wheel had on it’s edge a series of letters. Each disk <br /> is numbered and can be removed from the spinal, then put back on in any order. The order of the disks is the key.<br /> <br /> How this works is this… Both the sender and the receiver must have the disks in the same order. For example, for a 10 disk version might have a key like this 2,4,6,8,10,1,3,5,7,9. From there, the sender would arrange the wheels to spell out the message they wanted along one row. Then finding another row, copy the message from another row and that would be the coded message that would be sent. Since the receiver would have the disks in the same order, all they’d have to do would be spell out the coded message on the individual wheels then rotate them all at once until the sender’s message was shown. <br /> <br /> Though Jefferson invented the encryption, it didn’t catch on until later when it was also independently invented by Étienne Bazeries (French Cryptanalyst) about a century later. The Bazieries Cylinder was an improvement on the Jefferson Disk. With even further improvements, this would become the basis for the encoding system (M-94) the U.S. Army used from 1932- 1942. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_disk''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazeries_Cylinder''<br /> :: ''http://www.monticello.org:8081/wheelcipher/wheelcipher.html''<br /> <br /> ==Credit==<br /> === Rob Klaers, Billy Andersen, &amp; Matt Mortiz ===</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=A_Brief_Early_History_of_Cypher_text&diff=5845 2012-05-03T16:51:44Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Caesar Wheel */</p> <hr /> <div>== '''A Brief History of Early Cypher text''' ==<br /> <br /> === '''Scytale''' ===<br /> One of the earliest forms of Cryptography is the scytale. (sounds like “Italy” in pronunciation). <br /> <br /> The earliest known reference to this type of coded message dates back to the 7th Century B.C. Though it was mentioned that early, the <br /> references did not make clear on just how this method of cryptography worked. That is until Plutarch (a Greek historian, biographer, <br /> essayist who lived approx 46-120 A.D.) explained the method in his books “Parallel Lives”, in particular Volume 19 which talked about <br /> the Spartan General Lysander and how he communicated with his army. <br /> <br /> Plutarch goes into detail on just how this method works..As shown in this quote from the aforementioned volume, <br /> <br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;i&gt;“The dispatch-scroll is of the following character. When the ephors send out an admiral or a general, they make two round pieces of <br /> wood exactly alike in length and thickness, so that each corresponds to the other in its dimensions, and keep one themselves, while <br /> they give the other to their envoy. These pieces of wood they call scytalae. Whenever, then, they wish to send some secret and <br /> important message, they make a scroll of parchment long and narrow, like a leathern strap, and wind it round their scytale, leaving no <br /> vacant space thereon, but covering its surface all round with the parchment. After doing this, they write what they wish on the <br /> parchment, just as it lies wrapped about the scytale; and when they have written their message, they take the parchment off and send <br /> it, without the piece of wood, to the commander. He, when he has received it, cannot otherwise get any meaning out of it,--since the <br /> letters have no connection, but are disarranged,--unless he takes his own scytale and winds the strip of parchment about it, so that, <br /> when its spiral course is restored perfectly, and that which follows is joined to that which precedes, he reads around the staff, and <br /> so discovers the continuity of the message. And the parchment, like the staff, is called scytale, as the thing measured bears the name <br /> of the measure.” &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; <br /> :::—Plutarch, Lives (Lysander 19), ed. Bernadotte Perrin.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scytale''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch#Parallel_Lives''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LysanderScytale''<br /> <br /> === '''Caesar Wheel'''===<br /> Another early form of ciphering was the Caesar wheel, also known as the Caesar Cipher.. Named after Julius Caesar (100 B.C. – 44 B.C.) who was documented as having used it. <br /> <br /> This was essentially two disks of difference sizes. The smaller one on top of the larger one, joined in the center in such a . Each wheel would then be sectioned along its edge. Each of these sections had a letter of the alphabet. The key is set in advance such that both the sender and receiver what it is. The key was nothing more than a number which indicated the letter shift needed to encode or decode a message.<br /> <br /> For example.. <br /> <br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;i&gt;“If he had anything confidential to say, he wrote it in cipher, that is, by so changing the order of the letters of the alphabet,that not a word could be made out. “If anyone wishes to decipher these, and get at their meaning, he must substitute the fourth letter of the alphabet, namely D, for A, and so with the others.”&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; <br /> :::—Suetonius, Life of Julius Caesar <br /> <br /> Caesar relied on a few things for this cipher to work, in particular the general illiteracy and the ignorance of the common man. What this means is that the average person couldn’t read and those who could would assume the coded message was another language. Now, consider this same cipher can be seen today on your average box of cereal which has activities on the back of the box, you have an idea of just how illiterate the average person was in Caesar’s time. It’s so easy to break, even a caveman—oops, a child can break it. <br /> <br /> All Caesar did was off-set the alphabet by 4 spots. Even without knowing the off-set there are two ways by which to break this code. One is by letter frequency. Knowing which letters are used the most in the dominate language of the cipher. For instance, in English the top five most common letters used are “e”, ”t”, “a”, “o”, and “i”. The second is by brute force. Assuming for a moment that Caesar’s wheel had only 26 spots (one for each letter and no numbers) there would be 25 possibilities. <br /> <br /> As recently as 1915 the Russian Army was using a variation of this cipher, mainly because the more common complicated ciphers were too difficult for their troops to decode. <br /> <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_cipher''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_frequency''<br /> :: ''http://www.scholastic.com/spyx/pdfs/Cipher_Wheel.pdf''<br /> <br /> === '''Jefferson Disk''' ===<br /> <br /> The Caesar Cipher would be the inspiration for Thomas Jefferson many centuries later. In 1795, Jefferson developed a cipher system <br /> with used a series of 36 wheels (or disks) positioned along a central spinal. Each wheel had on it’s edge a series of letters. Each disk <br /> is numbered and can be removed from the spinal, then put back on in any order. The order of the disks is the key.<br /> <br /> How this works is this… Both the sender and the receiver must have the disks in the same order. For example, for a 10 disk version might have a key like this 2,4,6,8,10,1,3,5,7,9. From there, the sender would arrange the wheels to spell out the message they wanted along one row. Then finding another row, copy the message from another row and that would be the coded message that would be sent. Since the receiver would have the disks in the same order, all they’d have to do would be spell out the coded message on the individual wheels then rotate them all at once until the sender’s message was shown. <br /> <br /> Though Jefferson invented the encryption, it didn’t catch on until later when it was also independently invented by Étienne Bazeries (French Cryptanalyst) about a century later. The Bazieries Cylinder was an improvement on the Jefferson Disk. With even further improvements, this would become the basis for the encoding system (M-94) the U.S. Army used from 1932- 1942. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_disk''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazeries_Cylinder''<br /> :: ''http://www.monticello.org:8081/wheelcipher/wheelcipher.html''<br /> <br /> ==Credit==<br /> === Rob Klaers, Billy Andersen, &amp; Matt Mortiz ===</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=A_Brief_Early_History_of_Cypher_text&diff=5844 2012-05-03T16:49:06Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Scytale */</p> <hr /> <div>== '''A Brief History of Early Cypher text''' ==<br /> <br /> === '''Scytale''' ===<br /> One of the earliest forms of Cryptography is the scytale. (sounds like “Italy” in pronunciation). <br /> <br /> The earliest known reference to this type of coded message dates back to the 7th Century B.C. Though it was mentioned that early, the <br /> references did not make clear on just how this method of cryptography worked. That is until Plutarch (a Greek historian, biographer, <br /> essayist who lived approx 46-120 A.D.) explained the method in his books “Parallel Lives”, in particular Volume 19 which talked about <br /> the Spartan General Lysander and how he communicated with his army. <br /> <br /> Plutarch goes into detail on just how this method works..As shown in this quote from the aforementioned volume, <br /> <br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;i&gt;“The dispatch-scroll is of the following character. When the ephors send out an admiral or a general, they make two round pieces of <br /> wood exactly alike in length and thickness, so that each corresponds to the other in its dimensions, and keep one themselves, while <br /> they give the other to their envoy. These pieces of wood they call scytalae. Whenever, then, they wish to send some secret and <br /> important message, they make a scroll of parchment long and narrow, like a leathern strap, and wind it round their scytale, leaving no <br /> vacant space thereon, but covering its surface all round with the parchment. After doing this, they write what they wish on the <br /> parchment, just as it lies wrapped about the scytale; and when they have written their message, they take the parchment off and send <br /> it, without the piece of wood, to the commander. He, when he has received it, cannot otherwise get any meaning out of it,--since the <br /> letters have no connection, but are disarranged,--unless he takes his own scytale and winds the strip of parchment about it, so that, <br /> when its spiral course is restored perfectly, and that which follows is joined to that which precedes, he reads around the staff, and <br /> so discovers the continuity of the message. And the parchment, like the staff, is called scytale, as the thing measured bears the name <br /> of the measure.” &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; <br /> :::—Plutarch, Lives (Lysander 19), ed. Bernadotte Perrin.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scytale''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch#Parallel_Lives''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LysanderScytale''<br /> <br /> === '''Caesar Wheel'''===<br /> Another early form of ciphering was the Caesar wheel, also known as the Caesar Cipher.. Named after Julius Caesar (100 B.C. – 44 B.C.) who was documented as having used it. <br /> <br /> This was essentially two disks of difference sizes. The smaller one on top of the larger one, joined in the center in such a . Each wheel would then be sectioned along its edge. Each of these sections had a letter of the alphabet. The key is set in advance such that both the sender and receiver what it is. The key was nothing more than a number which indicated the letter shift needed to encode or decode a message.<br /> <br /> For example.. <br /> <br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;i&gt;“If he had anything confidential to say, he wrote it in cipher, that is, by so changing the order of the letters of the alphabet,that not a word could be made out. “If anyone wishes to decipher these, and get at their meaning, he must substitute the fourth letter of the alphabet, namely D, for A, and so with the others.”&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; <br /> :::—Suetonius, Life of Julius Caesar <br /> <br /> This is the easiest of the substitution ciphers. For example , it can be easily reverse engineered without having to know the key used. You’d just have to know the frequency of letters used in the language you. For example, in English if you know that “E” ,“T” and “A” were the most used letters in the alphabet you’d be well on your way to breaking the code. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_cipher''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_frequency''<br /> :: ''http://www.scholastic.com/spyx/pdfs/Cipher_Wheel.pdf''<br /> <br /> <br /> === '''Jefferson Disk''' ===<br /> <br /> The Caesar Cipher would be the inspiration for Thomas Jefferson many centuries later. In 1795, Jefferson developed a cipher system <br /> with used a series of 36 wheels (or disks) positioned along a central spinal. Each wheel had on it’s edge a series of letters. Each disk <br /> is numbered and can be removed from the spinal, then put back on in any order. The order of the disks is the key.<br /> <br /> How this works is this… Both the sender and the receiver must have the disks in the same order. For example, for a 10 disk version might have a key like this 2,4,6,8,10,1,3,5,7,9. From there, the sender would arrange the wheels to spell out the message they wanted along one row. Then finding another row, copy the message from another row and that would be the coded message that would be sent. Since the receiver would have the disks in the same order, all they’d have to do would be spell out the coded message on the individual wheels then rotate them all at once until the sender’s message was shown. <br /> <br /> Though Jefferson invented the encryption, it didn’t catch on until later when it was also independently invented by Étienne Bazeries (French Cryptanalyst) about a century later. The Bazieries Cylinder was an improvement on the Jefferson Disk. With even further improvements, this would become the basis for the encoding system (M-94) the U.S. Army used from 1932- 1942. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_disk''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazeries_Cylinder''<br /> :: ''http://www.monticello.org:8081/wheelcipher/wheelcipher.html''<br /> <br /> ==Credit==<br /> === Rob Klaers, Billy Andersen, &amp; Matt Mortiz ===</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=A_Brief_Early_History_of_Cypher_text&diff=5843 2012-05-03T16:48:33Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Scytale */</p> <hr /> <div>== '''A Brief History of Early Cypher text''' ==<br /> <br /> === '''Scytale''' ===<br /> One of the earliest forms of Cryptography is the scytale. (sounds like “Italy” in pronunciation). <br /> <br /> The earliest known reference to this type of coded message dates back to the 7th Century B.C. Though it was mentioned that early, the <br /> references did not make clear on just how this method of cryptography worked. That is until Plutarch (a Greek historian, biographer, <br /> essayist who lived approx 46-120 A.D.) explained the method in his books “Parallel Lives”, in particular Volume 19 which talked about <br /> the Spartan General Lysander and how he communicated with his army. <br /> <br /> Plutarch goes into detail on just how this method works..As shown in this quote from the aforementioned volume, <br /> <br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;i&gt;“The dispatch-scroll is of the following character. When the ephors send out an admiral or a general, they make two round pieces of <br /> wood exactly alike in length and thickness, so that each corresponds to the other in its dimensions, and keep one themselves, while <br /> they give the other to their envoy. These pieces of wood they call scytalae. Whenever, then, they wish to send some secret and <br /> important message, they make a scroll of parchment long and narrow, like a leathern strap, and wind it round their scytale, leaving no <br /> vacant space thereon, but covering its surface all round with the parchment. After doing this, they write what they wish on the <br /> parchment, just as it lies wrapped about the scytale; and when they have written their message, they take the parchment off and send <br /> it, without the piece of wood, to the commander. He, when he has received it, cannot otherwise get any meaning out of it,--since the <br /> letters have no connection, but are disarranged,--unless he takes his own scytale and winds the strip of parchment about it, so that, <br /> when its spiral course is restored perfectly, and that which follows is joined to that which precedes, he reads around the staff, and <br /> so discovers the continuity of the message. And the parchment, like the staff, is called scytale, as the thing measured bears the name <br /> of the measure.” &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; <br /> :::—Plutarch, Lives (Lysander 19), ed. Bernadotte Perrin.<br /> <br /> Caesar relied on a few things for this cipher to work, in particular the general illiteracy and the ignorance of the rest of the world of the common man. What this means is that the average person couldn’t read and those who could would assume the coded message was another language. Now, consider this same cipher can be seen today on your average box of cereal which as activities on the back of the box, you have an idea of just how illiterate the average person was in Caesar’s time. It’s so easy to break, even a caveman—oops, a child can break it. <br /> <br /> All Caesar did was off-set the alphabet by 4 spots. Even without knowing the off-set there are two ways by which to break this code. One is by letter frequency. Knowing which letters are used the most in the dominate language of the cipher. For instance, in English the top five most common letters used are “e”, ”t”, “a”, “o”, and “I”. The second is by brute force. Assuming for a moment that Caesar’s wheel had only 26 spots (one for each letter) there would in effect be 25 possibilities. <br /> <br /> As recently as 1915 the Russian Army was using a variation of this cipher, mainly because the more common complicated ciphers were too difficult for their troops to decode. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scytale''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch#Parallel_Lives''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LysanderScytale''<br /> <br /> === '''Caesar Wheel'''===<br /> Another early form of ciphering was the Caesar wheel, also known as the Caesar Cipher.. Named after Julius Caesar (100 B.C. – 44 B.C.) who was documented as having used it. <br /> <br /> This was essentially two disks of difference sizes. The smaller one on top of the larger one, joined in the center in such a . Each wheel would then be sectioned along its edge. Each of these sections had a letter of the alphabet. The key is set in advance such that both the sender and receiver what it is. The key was nothing more than a number which indicated the letter shift needed to encode or decode a message.<br /> <br /> For example.. <br /> <br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;i&gt;“If he had anything confidential to say, he wrote it in cipher, that is, by so changing the order of the letters of the alphabet,that not a word could be made out. “If anyone wishes to decipher these, and get at their meaning, he must substitute the fourth letter of the alphabet, namely D, for A, and so with the others.”&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; <br /> :::—Suetonius, Life of Julius Caesar <br /> <br /> This is the easiest of the substitution ciphers. For example , it can be easily reverse engineered without having to know the key used. You’d just have to know the frequency of letters used in the language you. For example, in English if you know that “E” ,“T” and “A” were the most used letters in the alphabet you’d be well on your way to breaking the code. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_cipher''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_frequency''<br /> :: ''http://www.scholastic.com/spyx/pdfs/Cipher_Wheel.pdf''<br /> <br /> <br /> === '''Jefferson Disk''' ===<br /> <br /> The Caesar Cipher would be the inspiration for Thomas Jefferson many centuries later. In 1795, Jefferson developed a cipher system <br /> with used a series of 36 wheels (or disks) positioned along a central spinal. Each wheel had on it’s edge a series of letters. Each disk <br /> is numbered and can be removed from the spinal, then put back on in any order. The order of the disks is the key.<br /> <br /> How this works is this… Both the sender and the receiver must have the disks in the same order. For example, for a 10 disk version might have a key like this 2,4,6,8,10,1,3,5,7,9. From there, the sender would arrange the wheels to spell out the message they wanted along one row. Then finding another row, copy the message from another row and that would be the coded message that would be sent. Since the receiver would have the disks in the same order, all they’d have to do would be spell out the coded message on the individual wheels then rotate them all at once until the sender’s message was shown. <br /> <br /> Though Jefferson invented the encryption, it didn’t catch on until later when it was also independently invented by Étienne Bazeries (French Cryptanalyst) about a century later. The Bazieries Cylinder was an improvement on the Jefferson Disk. With even further improvements, this would become the basis for the encoding system (M-94) the U.S. Army used from 1932- 1942. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_disk''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazeries_Cylinder''<br /> :: ''http://www.monticello.org:8081/wheelcipher/wheelcipher.html''<br /> <br /> ==Credit==<br /> === Rob Klaers, Billy Andersen, &amp; Matt Mortiz ===</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=Franske_Current_Student_Projects&diff=5784 2012-05-01T21:02:05Z

<p>Klae0010: /* CNT 2831 */</p> <hr /> <div>=SPRING 2012=<br /> ==CNT 2612==<br /> * STP Study Guide - Kevin M.<br /> * Reformating Wiki Course Guide - Billy A. &amp; Matt M.<br /> * Asterisk Configuration - C.Hermanson<br /> * Implementing QOS on a Multilayer Switch - M.Luger<br /> * Add topics to the CCNA and A+ courses - Corey Steiner<br /> <br /> ==CNT 2311==<br /> *<br /> <br /> ==CNT 2831==<br /> *Caesar Cipher, Scytale, and Jefferson Wheel -- Matt M., Billy A., Rob K.<br /> <br /> =FALL 2011=<br /> ==CNT 2520==<br /> * Routing Protocol Comparison Chart &amp; Configuration Instructions - John Cocchiarella, Tyler Grey<br /> * IPv6 Routing Protocol Configurations - David Favilla, Christopher Abel<br /> * GPON Gigabit Passive Optical Networks (ITU-T G.948) - Jesse Thorpe<br /> * Exam Question Formatting - Josh K.<br /> <br /> ==CNT 2540==<br /> * Enterprise Network Case Study and Diagramming - Christopher Moosbrugger<br /> * Update CCNA 4 SDM Labs to CCP Labs - Billy &amp; Matt<br /> * Ethernet Link Aggregation - Monique<br /> * IPv6 Over IPv4 Tunnel - Clay &amp; Curt<br /> <br /> ==CNT 2722==<br /> <br /> ==CNT 2820==<br /> * Pen Testing and ethics - Curt H. and Byron S.<br /> <br /> =SPRING 2011=<br /> ==CNT 2510==<br /> * List of resources that correspond to chapter for self study - John Cocchiarella<br /> <br /> ==CNT 2520==<br /> * Add to and update [[Intro to IPv6]]<br /> * Create router/switch reference guide for CCNA 1 students<br /> * Update VirtualBox startup script and create instructions for moving VMs between home and school with new version of Virualbox<br /> <br /> ==CNT 2530==<br /> * De-tableize [[Franske CNT-2510 SP10 Schedule]] and add chapter topics<br /> * Create detailed instructions for clearing the configurations (invluding VLANs) for the [[Switch Documentation]] and [[Router Documentation]] pages<br /> <br /> ==CNT 2612==<br /> * CatOS Guide, comparison to IOS - Mike Kaschner, Nouthou Vang, Mark Benolken<br /> <br /> * Cisco IOS Command Shortcuts - Monique Moison, Greg Haug<br /> <br /> =FALL 2010=<br /> ==CNT 2311==<br /> * [[Understanding Linux Permission Sets]] - Casey McBride<br /> * [[How to Setup NAT|NAT with a Linux System]] - Tsega Terefe<br /> * Alphabetical Linux Command List - Don Bliss<br /> * Linux vs. Windows 7 vs. Mac OS X - Andrew Westin<br /> <br /> ==CNT 2540==<br /> * Lab Maintenance - Samuel Francis<br /> * Update/Correct Frame Relay and ISDN Labs - Adam Nelson &amp; Dan Martin</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=A_Brief_Early_History_of_Cypher_text&diff=5701 2012-04-25T02:16:14Z

<p>Klae0010: /* A Brief History of Cypher text */</p> <hr /> <div>== '''A Brief History of Early Cypher text''' ==<br /> <br /> === '''Scytale''' ===<br /> One of the earliest forms of Cryptography is the scytale. (sounds like “Italy” in pronunciation). <br /> <br /> The earliest known reference to this type of coded message dates back to the 7th Century B.C. Though it was mentioned that early, the <br /> references did not make clear on just how this method of cryptography worked. That is until Plutarch (a Greek historian, biographer, <br /> essayist who lived approx 46-120 A.D.) explained the method in his books “Parallel Lives”, in particular Volume 19 which talked about <br /> the Spartan General Lysander and how he communicated with his army. <br /> <br /> Plutarch goes into detail on just how this method works..As shown in this quote from the aforementioned volume, <br /> <br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;i&gt;“The dispatch-scroll is of the following character. When the ephors send out an admiral or a general, they make two round pieces of <br /> wood exactly alike in length and thickness, so that each corresponds to the other in its dimensions, and keep one themselves, while <br /> they give the other to their envoy. These pieces of wood they call scytalae. Whenever, then, they wish to send some secret and <br /> important message, they make a scroll of parchment long and narrow, like a leathern strap, and wind it round their scytale, leaving no <br /> vacant space thereon, but covering its surface all round with the parchment. After doing this, they write what they wish on the <br /> parchment, just as it lies wrapped about the scytale; and when they have written their message, they take the parchment off and send <br /> it, without the piece of wood, to the commander. He, when he has received it, cannot otherwise get any meaning out of it,--since the <br /> letters have no connection, but are disarranged,--unless he takes his own scytale and winds the strip of parchment about it, so that, <br /> when its spiral course is restored perfectly, and that which follows is joined to that which precedes, he reads around the staff, and <br /> so discovers the continuity of the message. And the parchment, like the staff, is called scytale, as the thing measured bears the name <br /> of the measure.” &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; <br /> :::—Plutarch, Lives (Lysander 19), ed. Bernadotte Perrin.<br /> <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scytale''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch#Parallel_Lives''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LysanderScytale''<br /> <br /> === '''Caesar Wheel'''===<br /> Another early form of ciphering was the Caesar wheel, also known as the Caesar Cipher.. Named after Julius Caesar (100 B.C. – 44 B.C.) who was documented as having used it. <br /> <br /> This was essentially two disks of difference sizes. The smaller one on top of the larger one, joined in the center in such a . Each wheel would then be sectioned along its edge. Each of these sections had a letter of the alphabet. The key is set in advance such that both the sender and receiver what it is. The key was nothing more than a number which indicated the letter shift needed to encode or decode a message.<br /> <br /> For example.. <br /> <br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;i&gt;“If he had anything confidential to say, he wrote it in cipher, that is, by so changing the order of the letters of the alphabet,that not a word could be made out. “If anyone wishes to decipher these, and get at their meaning, he must substitute the fourth letter of the alphabet, namely D, for A, and so with the others.”&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; <br /> :::—Suetonius, Life of Julius Caesar <br /> <br /> This is the easiest of the substitution ciphers. For example , it can be easily reverse engineered without having to know the key used. You’d just have to know the frequency of letters used in the language you. For example, in English if you know that “E” ,“T” and “A” were the most used letters in the alphabet you’d be well on your way to breaking the code. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_cipher''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_frequency''<br /> :: ''http://www.scholastic.com/spyx/pdfs/Cipher_Wheel.pdf''<br /> <br /> <br /> === '''Jefferson Disk''' ===<br /> <br /> The Caesar Cipher would be the inspiration for Thomas Jefferson many centuries later. In 1795, Jefferson developed a cipher system <br /> with used a series of 36 wheels (or disks) positioned along a central spinal. Each wheel had on it’s edge a series of letters. Each disk <br /> is numbered and can be removed from the spinal, then put back on in any order. The order of the disks is the key.<br /> <br /> How this works is this… Both the sender and the receiver must have the disks in the same order. For example, for a 10 disk version might have a key like this 2,4,6,8,10,1,3,5,7,9. From there, the sender would arrange the wheels to spell out the message they wanted along one row. Then finding another row, copy the message from another row and that would be the coded message that would be sent. Since the receiver would have the disks in the same order, all they’d have to do would be spell out the coded message on the individual wheels then rotate them all at once until the sender’s message was shown. <br /> <br /> Though Jefferson invented the encryption, it didn’t catch on until later when it was also independently invented by Étienne Bazeries (French Cryptanalyst) about a century later. The Bazieries Cylinder was an improvement on the Jefferson Disk. With even further improvements, this would become the basis for the encoding system (M-94) the U.S. Army used from 1932- 1942. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_disk''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazeries_Cylinder''<br /> :: ''http://www.monticello.org:8081/wheelcipher/wheelcipher.html''<br /> <br /> ==Credit==<br /> === Rob Klaers, Billy Andersen, &amp; Matt Mortiz ===</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=A_Brief_Early_History_of_Cypher_text&diff=5700 2012-04-25T02:15:55Z

<p>Klae0010: Created page with &quot;== &#039;&#039;&#039;A Brief History of Cypher text&#039;&#039;&#039; == === &#039;&#039;&#039;Scytale&#039;&#039;&#039; === One of the earliest forms of Cryptography is the scytale. (sounds like “Italy” in pronunciation). The earl...&quot;</p> <hr /> <div>== '''A Brief History of Cypher text''' ==<br /> <br /> === '''Scytale''' ===<br /> One of the earliest forms of Cryptography is the scytale. (sounds like “Italy” in pronunciation). <br /> <br /> The earliest known reference to this type of coded message dates back to the 7th Century B.C. Though it was mentioned that early, the <br /> references did not make clear on just how this method of cryptography worked. That is until Plutarch (a Greek historian, biographer, <br /> essayist who lived approx 46-120 A.D.) explained the method in his books “Parallel Lives”, in particular Volume 19 which talked about <br /> the Spartan General Lysander and how he communicated with his army. <br /> <br /> Plutarch goes into detail on just how this method works..As shown in this quote from the aforementioned volume, <br /> <br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;i&gt;“The dispatch-scroll is of the following character. When the ephors send out an admiral or a general, they make two round pieces of <br /> wood exactly alike in length and thickness, so that each corresponds to the other in its dimensions, and keep one themselves, while <br /> they give the other to their envoy. These pieces of wood they call scytalae. Whenever, then, they wish to send some secret and <br /> important message, they make a scroll of parchment long and narrow, like a leathern strap, and wind it round their scytale, leaving no <br /> vacant space thereon, but covering its surface all round with the parchment. After doing this, they write what they wish on the <br /> parchment, just as it lies wrapped about the scytale; and when they have written their message, they take the parchment off and send <br /> it, without the piece of wood, to the commander. He, when he has received it, cannot otherwise get any meaning out of it,--since the <br /> letters have no connection, but are disarranged,--unless he takes his own scytale and winds the strip of parchment about it, so that, <br /> when its spiral course is restored perfectly, and that which follows is joined to that which precedes, he reads around the staff, and <br /> so discovers the continuity of the message. And the parchment, like the staff, is called scytale, as the thing measured bears the name <br /> of the measure.” &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; <br /> :::—Plutarch, Lives (Lysander 19), ed. Bernadotte Perrin.<br /> <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scytale''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch#Parallel_Lives''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LysanderScytale''<br /> <br /> === '''Caesar Wheel'''===<br /> Another early form of ciphering was the Caesar wheel, also known as the Caesar Cipher.. Named after Julius Caesar (100 B.C. – 44 B.C.) who was documented as having used it. <br /> <br /> This was essentially two disks of difference sizes. The smaller one on top of the larger one, joined in the center in such a . Each wheel would then be sectioned along its edge. Each of these sections had a letter of the alphabet. The key is set in advance such that both the sender and receiver what it is. The key was nothing more than a number which indicated the letter shift needed to encode or decode a message.<br /> <br /> For example.. <br /> <br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;i&gt;“If he had anything confidential to say, he wrote it in cipher, that is, by so changing the order of the letters of the alphabet,that not a word could be made out. “If anyone wishes to decipher these, and get at their meaning, he must substitute the fourth letter of the alphabet, namely D, for A, and so with the others.”&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; <br /> :::—Suetonius, Life of Julius Caesar <br /> <br /> This is the easiest of the substitution ciphers. For example , it can be easily reverse engineered without having to know the key used. You’d just have to know the frequency of letters used in the language you. For example, in English if you know that “E” ,“T” and “A” were the most used letters in the alphabet you’d be well on your way to breaking the code. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_cipher''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_frequency''<br /> :: ''http://www.scholastic.com/spyx/pdfs/Cipher_Wheel.pdf''<br /> <br /> <br /> === '''Jefferson Disk''' ===<br /> <br /> The Caesar Cipher would be the inspiration for Thomas Jefferson many centuries later. In 1795, Jefferson developed a cipher system <br /> with used a series of 36 wheels (or disks) positioned along a central spinal. Each wheel had on it’s edge a series of letters. Each disk <br /> is numbered and can be removed from the spinal, then put back on in any order. The order of the disks is the key.<br /> <br /> How this works is this… Both the sender and the receiver must have the disks in the same order. For example, for a 10 disk version might have a key like this 2,4,6,8,10,1,3,5,7,9. From there, the sender would arrange the wheels to spell out the message they wanted along one row. Then finding another row, copy the message from another row and that would be the coded message that would be sent. Since the receiver would have the disks in the same order, all they’d have to do would be spell out the coded message on the individual wheels then rotate them all at once until the sender’s message was shown. <br /> <br /> Though Jefferson invented the encryption, it didn’t catch on until later when it was also independently invented by Étienne Bazeries (French Cryptanalyst) about a century later. The Bazieries Cylinder was an improvement on the Jefferson Disk. With even further improvements, this would become the basis for the encoding system (M-94) the U.S. Army used from 1932- 1942. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_disk''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazeries_Cylinder''<br /> :: ''http://www.monticello.org:8081/wheelcipher/wheelcipher.html''<br /> <br /> ==Credit==<br /> === Rob Klaers, Billy Andersen, &amp; Matt Mortiz ===</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=Franske_CNT-2831&diff=5699 2012-04-25T02:12:17Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Projects */</p> <hr /> <div>This is the homepage for the CNT-2831: Implementing Cisco IOS Network Security (CCNA Security) classes taught by Dr. Ben Franske.<br /> <br /> = General Course Information =<br /> * [[Franske CNT-2831 Syllabus|Course Syllabus]]<br /> * [[Franske CNT-2831 SP12 Schedule|Spring 2012 Course Schedule]]<br /> * [[Franske CNT-2831 How to do well|How to do well in CNT-2831]]<br /> * [[Franske CNT-2831 Labs|Lab Assignments]]<br /> * [[Franske Lab Report Format|Lab Report Format]]<br /> * [[Franske CNT Service Project Assignment|Service Project Assignment]]<br /> <br /> = Projects =<br /> * [[CCP Setup Instructions]]<br /> * [[SmallBusinessSecurity]]<br /> * [[DynDns]]<br /> * [[Steganography]]<br /> * [[Cryptographic Hashing Function (SHA-1 and MD5)]]<br /> * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ij85Ke5_9IQ Minecraft Models of Cisco Devices]<br /> * [[A Brief Early History of Cypher text]]<br /> <br /> = Resources =<br /> == AAA ==<br /> * [http://www.pro-bono-publico.de/projects/ Pro-Bono-Publico open source TACACS+ server and configuration manual]<br /> * [http://www.shrubbery.net/tac_plus/ Shrubbery open source TACACS+ server]<br /> * [http://tacacs.org/ TACACS+ Blog: Casting Light on the Dark Art of TACACS+]<br /> == Cryptography ==<br /> * Security Now Episode 35: Cryptographic Hashes [http://media.grc.com/sn/sn-035.mp3 Audio], [http://www.grc.com/sn/sn-035.htm Text]<br /> * Security Now Episode 185: Cryptographic HMACs [http://www.podtrac.com/pts/redirect.mp3/aolradio.podcast.aol.com/sn/SN-185.mp3 Audio], [http://www.grc.com/sn/sn-185.htm Text] Content starts at 55:30<br /> * Security Now Episode 31: Symmetric Stream Ciphers [http://media.grc.com/sn/sn-031.mp3 Audio], [http://www.grc.com/sn/sn-031.htm Text]<br /> * Security Now Episode 33: Symmetric Block Ciphers [http://media.grc.com/sn/sn-033.mp3 Audio], [http://www.grc.com/sn/sn-033.htm Text]<br /> * Security Now Episode 34: Public Key Cryptography [http://media.grc.com/sn/sn-034.mp3 Audio], [http://www.grc.com/sn/sn-034.htm Text]</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=ITCwiki:Current_events&diff=5698 2012-04-25T02:08:35Z

<p>Klae0010: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''A Brief History of Cypher text''' ==<br /> <br /> === '''Scytale''' ===<br /> One of the earliest forms of Cryptography is the scytale. (sounds like “Italy” in pronunciation). <br /> <br /> The earliest known reference to this type of coded message dates back to the 7th Century B.C. Though it was mentioned that early, the <br /> references did not make clear on just how this method of cryptography worked. That is until Plutarch (a Greek historian, biographer, <br /> essayist who lived approx 46-120 A.D.) explained the method in his books “Parallel Lives”, in particular Volume 19 which talked about <br /> the Spartan General Lysander and how he communicated with his army. <br /> <br /> Plutarch goes into detail on just how this method works..As shown in this quote from the aforementioned volume, <br /> <br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;i&gt;“The dispatch-scroll is of the following character. When the ephors send out an admiral or a general, they make two round pieces of <br /> wood exactly alike in length and thickness, so that each corresponds to the other in its dimensions, and keep one themselves, while <br /> they give the other to their envoy. These pieces of wood they call scytalae. Whenever, then, they wish to send some secret and <br /> important message, they make a scroll of parchment long and narrow, like a leathern strap, and wind it round their scytale, leaving no <br /> vacant space thereon, but covering its surface all round with the parchment. After doing this, they write what they wish on the <br /> parchment, just as it lies wrapped about the scytale; and when they have written their message, they take the parchment off and send <br /> it, without the piece of wood, to the commander. He, when he has received it, cannot otherwise get any meaning out of it,--since the <br /> letters have no connection, but are disarranged,--unless he takes his own scytale and winds the strip of parchment about it, so that, <br /> when its spiral course is restored perfectly, and that which follows is joined to that which precedes, he reads around the staff, and <br /> so discovers the continuity of the message. And the parchment, like the staff, is called scytale, as the thing measured bears the name <br /> of the measure.” &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; <br /> :::—Plutarch, Lives (Lysander 19), ed. Bernadotte Perrin.<br /> <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scytale''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch#Parallel_Lives''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LysanderScytale''<br /> <br /> === '''Caesar Wheel'''===<br /> Another early form of ciphering was the Caesar wheel, also known as the Caesar Cipher.. Named after Julius Caesar (100 B.C. – 44 B.C.) who was documented as having used it. <br /> <br /> This was essentially two disks of difference sizes. The smaller one on top of the larger one, joined in the center in such a . Each wheel would then be sectioned along its edge. Each of these sections had a letter of the alphabet. The key is set in advance such that both the sender and receiver what it is. The key was nothing more than a number which indicated the letter shift needed to encode or decode a message.<br /> <br /> For example.. <br /> <br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;i&gt;“If he had anything confidential to say, he wrote it in cipher, that is, by so changing the order of the letters of the alphabet,that not a word could be made out. “If anyone wishes to decipher these, and get at their meaning, he must substitute the fourth letter of the alphabet, namely D, for A, and so with the others.”&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; <br /> :::—Suetonius, Life of Julius Caesar <br /> <br /> This is the easiest of the substitution ciphers. For example , it can be easily reverse engineered without having to know the key used. You’d just have to know the frequency of letters used in the language you. For example, in English if you know that “E” ,“T” and “A” were the most used letters in the alphabet you’d be well on your way to breaking the code. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_cipher''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_frequency''<br /> :: ''http://www.scholastic.com/spyx/pdfs/Cipher_Wheel.pdf''<br /> <br /> <br /> === '''Jefferson Disk''' ===<br /> <br /> The Caesar Cipher would be the inspiration for Thomas Jefferson many centuries later. In 1795, Jefferson developed a cipher system <br /> with used a series of 36 wheels (or disks) positioned along a central spinal. Each wheel had on it’s edge a series of letters. Each disk <br /> is numbered and can be removed from the spinal, then put back on in any order. The order of the disks is the key.<br /> <br /> How this works is this… Both the sender and the receiver must have the disks in the same order. For example, for a 10 disk version might have a key like this 2,4,6,8,10,1,3,5,7,9. From there, the sender would arrange the wheels to spell out the message they wanted along one row. Then finding another row, copy the message from another row and that would be the coded message that would be sent. Since the receiver would have the disks in the same order, all they’d have to do would be spell out the coded message on the individual wheels then rotate them all at once until the sender’s message was shown. <br /> <br /> Though Jefferson invented the encryption, it didn’t catch on until later when it was also independently invented by Étienne Bazeries (French Cryptanalyst) about a century later. The Bazieries Cylinder was an improvement on the Jefferson Disk. With even further improvements, this would become the basis for the encoding system (M-94) the U.S. Army used from 1932- 1942. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_disk''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazeries_Cylinder''<br /> :: ''http://www.monticello.org:8081/wheelcipher/wheelcipher.html''<br /> <br /> ==Credit==<br /> === Rob Klaers, Billy Andersen, &amp; Matt Mortiz ===</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=ITCwiki:Current_events&diff=5697 2012-04-25T02:07:21Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Jefferson Disk */</p> <hr /> <div>== '''A Brief History of Cypher text''' ==<br /> <br /> === '''Scytale''' ===<br /> :One of the earliest forms of Cryptography is the scytale. (sounds like “Italy” in pronunciation). <br /> <br /> The earliest known reference to this type of coded message dates back to the 7th Century B.C. Though it was mentioned that early, the <br /> references did not make clear on just how this method of cryptography worked. That is until Plutarch (a Greek historian, biographer, <br /> essayist who lived approx 46-120 A.D.) explained the method in his books “Parallel Lives”, in particular Volume 19 which talked about <br /> the Spartan General Lysander and how he communicated with his army. <br /> <br /> Plutarch goes into detail on just how this method works..As shown in this quote from the aforementioned volume, <br /> <br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;i&gt;“The dispatch-scroll is of the following character. When the ephors send out an admiral or a general, they make two round pieces of <br /> wood exactly alike in length and thickness, so that each corresponds to the other in its dimensions, and keep one themselves, while <br /> they give the other to their envoy. These pieces of wood they call scytalae. Whenever, then, they wish to send some secret and <br /> important message, they make a scroll of parchment long and narrow, like a leathern strap, and wind it round their scytale, leaving no <br /> vacant space thereon, but covering its surface all round with the parchment. After doing this, they write what they wish on the <br /> parchment, just as it lies wrapped about the scytale; and when they have written their message, they take the parchment off and send <br /> it, without the piece of wood, to the commander. He, when he has received it, cannot otherwise get any meaning out of it,--since the <br /> letters have no connection, but are disarranged,--unless he takes his own scytale and winds the strip of parchment about it, so that, <br /> when its spiral course is restored perfectly, and that which follows is joined to that which precedes, he reads around the staff, and <br /> so discovers the continuity of the message. And the parchment, like the staff, is called scytale, as the thing measured bears the name <br /> of the measure.” &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; <br /> :::—Plutarch, Lives (Lysander 19), ed. Bernadotte Perrin.<br /> <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scytale''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch#Parallel_Lives''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LysanderScytale''<br /> <br /> === '''Caesar Wheel'''===<br /> :: Another early form of ciphering was the Caesar wheel, also known as the Caesar Cipher.. Named after Julius Caesar (100 B.C. – 44 B.C.) who was documented as having used it. <br /> <br /> This was essentially two disks of difference sizes. The smaller one on top of the larger one, joined in the center in such a . Each wheel would then be sectioned along its edge. Each of these sections had a letter of the alphabet. The key is set in advance such that both the sender and receiver what it is. The key was nothing more than a number which indicated the letter shift needed to encode or decode a message.<br /> <br /> For example.. <br /> <br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;i&gt;“If he had anything confidential to say, he wrote it in cipher, that is, by so changing the order of the letters of the alphabet,that not a word could be made out. “If anyone wishes to decipher these, and get at their meaning, he must substitute the fourth letter of the alphabet, namely D, for A, and so with the others.”&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; <br /> :::—Suetonius, Life of Julius Caesar <br /> <br /> This is the easiest of the substitution ciphers. For example , it can be easily reverse engineered without having to know the key used. You’d just have to know the frequency of letters used in the language you. For example, in English if you know that “E” ,“T” and “A” were the most used letters in the alphabet you’d be well on your way to breaking the code. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_cipher''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_frequency''<br /> :: ''http://www.scholastic.com/spyx/pdfs/Cipher_Wheel.pdf''<br /> <br /> <br /> === '''Jefferson Disk''' ===<br /> <br /> The Caesar Cipher would be the inspiration for Thomas Jefferson many centuries later. In 1795, Jefferson developed a cipher system <br /> with used a series of 36 wheels (or disks) positioned along a central spinal. Each wheel had on it’s edge a series of letters. Each disk <br /> is numbered and can be removed from the spinal, then put back on in any order. The order of the disks is the key.<br /> <br /> How this works is this… Both the sender and the receiver must have the disks in the same order. For example, for a 10 disk version might have a key like this 2,4,6,8,10,1,3,5,7,9. From there, the sender would arrange the wheels to spell out the message they wanted along one row. Then finding another row, copy the message from another row and that would be the coded message that would be sent. Since the receiver would have the disks in the same order, all they’d have to do would be spell out the coded message on the individual wheels then rotate them all at once until the sender’s message was shown. <br /> <br /> Though Jefferson invented the encryption, it didn’t catch on until later when it was also independently invented by Étienne Bazeries (French Cryptanalyst) about a century later. The Bazieries Cylinder was an improvement on the Jefferson Disk. With even further improvements, this would become the basis for the encoding system (M-94) the U.S. Army used from 1932- 1942. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_disk''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazeries_Cylinder''<br /> :: ''http://www.monticello.org:8081/wheelcipher/wheelcipher.html''<br /> <br /> ==Credit==<br /> === Rob Klaers, Billy Andersen, &amp; Matt Mortiz ===</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=ITCwiki:Current_events&diff=5696 2012-04-25T02:02:07Z

<p>Klae0010: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''A Brief History of Cypher text''' ==<br /> <br /> === '''Scytale''' ===<br /> :One of the earliest forms of Cryptography is the scytale. (sounds like “Italy” in pronunciation). <br /> <br /> The earliest known reference to this type of coded message dates back to the 7th Century B.C. Though it was mentioned that early, the <br /> references did not make clear on just how this method of cryptography worked. That is until Plutarch (a Greek historian, biographer, <br /> essayist who lived approx 46-120 A.D.) explained the method in his books “Parallel Lives”, in particular Volume 19 which talked about <br /> the Spartan General Lysander and how he communicated with his army. <br /> <br /> Plutarch goes into detail on just how this method works..As shown in this quote from the aforementioned volume, <br /> <br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;i&gt;“The dispatch-scroll is of the following character. When the ephors send out an admiral or a general, they make two round pieces of <br /> wood exactly alike in length and thickness, so that each corresponds to the other in its dimensions, and keep one themselves, while <br /> they give the other to their envoy. These pieces of wood they call scytalae. Whenever, then, they wish to send some secret and <br /> important message, they make a scroll of parchment long and narrow, like a leathern strap, and wind it round their scytale, leaving no <br /> vacant space thereon, but covering its surface all round with the parchment. After doing this, they write what they wish on the <br /> parchment, just as it lies wrapped about the scytale; and when they have written their message, they take the parchment off and send <br /> it, without the piece of wood, to the commander. He, when he has received it, cannot otherwise get any meaning out of it,--since the <br /> letters have no connection, but are disarranged,--unless he takes his own scytale and winds the strip of parchment about it, so that, <br /> when its spiral course is restored perfectly, and that which follows is joined to that which precedes, he reads around the staff, and <br /> so discovers the continuity of the message. And the parchment, like the staff, is called scytale, as the thing measured bears the name <br /> of the measure.” &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; <br /> :::—Plutarch, Lives (Lysander 19), ed. Bernadotte Perrin.<br /> <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scytale''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch#Parallel_Lives''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LysanderScytale''<br /> <br /> === '''Caesar Wheel'''===<br /> :: Another early form of ciphering was the Caesar wheel, also known as the Caesar Cipher.. Named after Julius Caesar (100 B.C. – 44 B.C.) who was documented as having used it. <br /> <br /> This was essentially two disks of difference sizes. The smaller one on top of the larger one, joined in the center in such a . Each wheel would then be sectioned along its edge. Each of these sections had a letter of the alphabet. The key is set in advance such that both the sender and receiver what it is. The key was nothing more than a number which indicated the letter shift needed to encode or decode a message.<br /> <br /> For example.. <br /> <br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;i&gt;“If he had anything confidential to say, he wrote it in cipher, that is, by so changing the order of the letters of the alphabet,that not a word could be made out. “If anyone wishes to decipher these, and get at their meaning, he must substitute the fourth letter of the alphabet, namely D, for A, and so with the others.”&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; <br /> :::—Suetonius, Life of Julius Caesar <br /> <br /> This is the easiest of the substitution ciphers. For example , it can be easily reverse engineered without having to know the key used. You’d just have to know the frequency of letters used in the language you. For example, in English if you know that “E” ,“T” and “A” were the most used letters in the alphabet you’d be well on your way to breaking the code. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_cipher''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_frequency''<br /> :: ''http://www.scholastic.com/spyx/pdfs/Cipher_Wheel.pdf''<br /> <br /> <br /> === '''Jefferson Disk''' ===<br /> ::The Caesar Cipher would be the inspiration for Thomas Jefferson many centuries later. In 1795, Jefferson developed a cipher system with used a series of 36 wheels (or disks) positioned along a central spinal. Each wheel had on it’s edge a series of letters. Each disk is numbered and can be removed from the spinal, then put back on in any order. The order of the disks is the key.<br /> <br /> How this works is this… Both the sender and the receiver must have the disks in the same order. For example, for a 10 disk version might have a key like this 2,4,6,8,10,1,3,5,7,9. From there, the sender would arrange the wheels to spell out the message they wanted along one row. Then finding another row, copy the message from another row and that would be the coded message that would be sent. Since the receiver would have the disks in the same order, all they’d have to do would be spell out the coded message on the individual wheels then rotate them all at once until the sender’s message was shown. <br /> <br /> Though Jefferson invented the encryption, it didn’t catch on until later when it was also independently invented by Étienne Bazeries (French Cryptanalyst) about a century later. The Bazieries Cylinder was an improvement on the Jefferson Disk. With even further improvements, this would become the basis for the encoding system (M-94) the U.S. Army used from 1932- 1942. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_disk''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazeries_Cylinder''<br /> :: ''http://www.monticello.org:8081/wheelcipher/wheelcipher.html''<br /> <br /> ==Credit==<br /> === Rob Klaers, Billy Andersen, &amp; Matt Mortiz ===</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=ITCwiki:Current_events&diff=5695 2012-04-25T01:57:03Z

<p>Klae0010: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''A Brief History of Cypher text''' ==<br /> <br /> === '''Scytale''' ===<br /> :One of the earliest forms of Cryptography is the scytale. (sounds like “Italy” in pronunciation). <br /> <br /> The earliest known reference to this type of coded message dates back to the 7th Century B.C. Though it was mentioned that early, the <br /> references did not make clear on just how this method of cryptography worked. That is until Plutarch (a Greek historian, biographer, <br /> essayist who lived approx 46-120 A.D.) explained the method in his books “Parallel Lives”, in particular Volume 19 which talked about <br /> the Spartan General Lysander and how he communicated with his army. <br /> <br /> Plutarch goes into detail on just how this method works..As shown in this quote from the aforementioned volume, <br /> <br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;i&gt;“The dispatch-scroll is of the following character. When the ephors send out an admiral or a general, they make two round pieces of <br /> wood exactly alike in length and thickness, so that each corresponds to the other in its dimensions, and keep one themselves, while <br /> they give the other to their envoy. These pieces of wood they call scytalae. Whenever, then, they wish to send some secret and <br /> important message, they make a scroll of parchment long and narrow, like a leathern strap, and wind it round their scytale, leaving no <br /> vacant space thereon, but covering its surface all round with the parchment. After doing this, they write what they wish on the <br /> parchment, just as it lies wrapped about the scytale; and when they have written their message, they take the parchment off and send <br /> it, without the piece of wood, to the commander. He, when he has received it, cannot otherwise get any meaning out of it,--since the <br /> letters have no connection, but are disarranged,--unless he takes his own scytale and winds the strip of parchment about it, so that, <br /> when its spiral course is restored perfectly, and that which follows is joined to that which precedes, he reads around the staff, and <br /> so discovers the continuity of the message. And the parchment, like the staff, is called scytale, as the thing measured bears the name <br /> of the measure.” &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; —Plutarch, Lives (Lysander 19), ed. Bernadotte Perrin.<br /> <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scytale''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch#Parallel_Lives''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LysanderScytale''<br /> <br /> === '''Caesar Wheel'''===<br /> :: Another early form of ciphering was the Caesar wheel, also known as the Caesar Cipher.. Named after Julius Caesar (100 B.C. – 44 B.C.) who was documented as having used it. <br /> <br /> This was essentially two disks of difference sizes. The smaller one on top of the larger one, joined in the center in such a . Each wheel would then be sectioned along its edge. Each of these sections had a letter of the alphabet. The key is set in advance such that both the sender and receiver what it is. The key was nothing more than a number which indicated the letter shift needed to encode or decode a message.<br /> <br /> For example.. <br /> <br /> :::” If he had anything confidential to say, he wrote it in cipher, that is, by so changing the order of the letters of the alphabet, <br /> :::that not a word could be made out. “If anyone wishes to decipher these, and get at their meaning, he must substitute the fourth letter <br /> :::of the alphabet, namely D, for A, and so with the others.” —Suetonius, Life of Julius Caesar <br /> <br /> This is the easiest of the substitution ciphers. For example , it can be easily reverse engineered without having to know the key used. You’d just have to know the frequency of letters used in the language you. For example, in English if you know that “E” ,“T” and “A” were the most used letters in the alphabet you’d be well on your way to breaking the code. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_cipher''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_frequency''<br /> :: ''http://www.scholastic.com/spyx/pdfs/Cipher_Wheel.pdf''<br /> <br /> <br /> === '''Jefferson Disk''' ===<br /> ::The Caesar Cipher would be the inspiration for Thomas Jefferson many centuries later. In 1795, Jefferson developed a cipher system with used a series of 36 wheels (or disks) positioned along a central spinal. Each wheel had on it’s edge a series of letters. Each disk is numbered and can be removed from the spinal, then put back on in any order. The order of the disks is the key.<br /> <br /> How this works is this… Both the sender and the receiver must have the disks in the same order. For example, for a 10 disk version might have a key like this 2,4,6,8,10,1,3,5,7,9. From there, the sender would arrange the wheels to spell out the message they wanted along one row. Then finding another row, copy the message from another row and that would be the coded message that would be sent. Since the receiver would have the disks in the same order, all they’d have to do would be spell out the coded message on the individual wheels then rotate them all at once until the sender’s message was shown. <br /> <br /> Though Jefferson invented the encryption, it didn’t catch on until later when it was also independently invented by Étienne Bazeries (French Cryptanalyst) about a century later. The Bazieries Cylinder was an improvement on the Jefferson Disk. With even further improvements, this would become the basis for the encoding system (M-94) the U.S. Army used from 1932- 1942. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_disk''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazeries_Cylinder''<br /> :: ''http://www.monticello.org:8081/wheelcipher/wheelcipher.html''<br /> <br /> ==Credit==<br /> === Rob Klaers, Billy Andersen, &amp; Matt Mortiz ===</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=ITCwiki:Current_events&diff=5694 2012-04-25T01:56:16Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Scytale */</p> <hr /> <div>== '''A Brief History of Cypher text''' ==<br /> <br /> === '''Scytale''' ===<br /> :One of the earliest forms of Cryptography is the scytale. (sounds like “Italy” in pronunciation). <br /> <br /> The earliest known reference to this type of coded message dates back to the 7th Century B.C. Though it was mentioned that early, the <br /> references did not make clear on just how this method of cryptography worked. That is until Plutarch (a Greek historian, biographer, <br /> essayist who lived approx 46-120 A.D.) explained the method in his books “Parallel Lives”, in particular Volume 19 which talked about <br /> the Spartan General Lysander and how he communicated with his army. <br /> <br /> Plutarch goes into detail on just how this method works..As shown in this quote from the aforementioned volume, <br /> <br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;i&gt;“The dispatch-scroll is of the following character. When the ephors send out an admiral or a general, they make two round pieces of <br /> wood exactly alike in length and thickness, so that each corresponds to the other in its dimensions, and keep one themselves, while <br /> they give the other to their envoy. These pieces of wood they call scytalae. Whenever, then, they wish to send some secret and <br /> important message, they make a scroll of parchment long and narrow, like a leathern strap, and wind it round their scytale, leaving no <br /> vacant space thereon, but covering its surface all round with the parchment. After doing this, they write what they wish on the <br /> parchment, just as it lies wrapped about the scytale; and when they have written their message, they take the parchment off and send <br /> it, without the piece of wood, to the commander. He, when he has received it, cannot otherwise get any meaning out of it,--since the <br /> letters have no connection, but are disarranged,--unless he takes his own scytale and winds the strip of parchment about it, so that, <br /> when its spiral course is restored perfectly, and that which follows is joined to that which precedes, he reads around the staff, and <br /> so discovers the continuity of the message. And the parchment, like the staff, is called scytale, as the thing measured bears the name <br /> of the measure.” &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; —Plutarch, Lives (Lysander 19), ed. Bernadotte Perrin.<br /> <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scytale''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch#Parallel_Lives''<br /> :: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LysanderScytale''<br /> <br /> === '''Caesar Wheel'''===<br /> :: Another early form of ciphering was the Caesar wheel, also known as the Caesar Cipher.. Named after Julius Caesar (100 B.C. – 44 B.C.) who was documented as having used it. <br /> <br /> This was essentially two disks of difference sizes. The smaller one on top of the larger one, joined in the center in such a . Each wheel would then be sectioned along its edge. Each of these sections had a letter of the alphabet. The key is set in advance such that both the sender and receiver what it is. The key was nothing more than a number which indicated the letter shift needed to encode or decode a message.<br /> <br /> For example.. <br /> <br /> :::” If he had anything confidential to say, he wrote it in cipher, that is, by so changing the order of the letters of the alphabet, <br /> :::that not a word could be made out. “If anyone wishes to decipher these, and get at their meaning, he must substitute the fourth letter <br /> :::of the alphabet, namely D, for A, and so with the others.” —Suetonius, Life of Julius Caesar <br /> <br /> This is the easiest of the substitution ciphers. For example , it can be easily reverse engineered without having to know the key used. You’d just have to know the frequency of letters used in the language you. For example, in English if you know that “E” ,“T” and “A” were the most used letters in the alphabet you’d be well on your way to breaking the code. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_cipher''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_frequency''<br /> :::: ''http://www.scholastic.com/spyx/pdfs/Cipher_Wheel.pdf''<br /> <br /> <br /> === '''Jefferson Disk''' ===<br /> ::The Caesar Cipher would be the inspiration for Thomas Jefferson many centuries later. In 1795, Jefferson developed a cipher system with used a series of 36 wheels (or disks) positioned along a central spinal. Each wheel had on it’s edge a series of letters. Each disk is numbered and can be removed from the spinal, then put back on in any order. The order of the disks is the key.<br /> <br /> How this works is this… Both the sender and the receiver must have the disks in the same order. For example, for a 10 disk version might have a key like this 2,4,6,8,10,1,3,5,7,9. From there, the sender would arrange the wheels to spell out the message they wanted along one row. Then finding another row, copy the message from another row and that would be the coded message that would be sent. Since the receiver would have the disks in the same order, all they’d have to do would be spell out the coded message on the individual wheels then rotate them all at once until the sender’s message was shown. <br /> <br /> Though Jefferson invented the encryption, it didn’t catch on until later when it was also independently invented by Étienne Bazeries (French Cryptanalyst) about a century later. The Bazieries Cylinder was an improvement on the Jefferson Disk. With even further improvements, this would become the basis for the encoding system (M-94) the U.S. Army used from 1932- 1942. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_disk''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazeries_Cylinder''<br /> :::: ''http://www.monticello.org:8081/wheelcipher/wheelcipher.html''<br /> <br /> ==Credit==<br /> === Rob Klaers, Billy Andersen, &amp; Matt Mortiz ===</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=ITCwiki:Current_events&diff=5693 2012-04-25T01:55:57Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Scytale */</p> <hr /> <div>== '''A Brief History of Cypher text''' ==<br /> <br /> === '''Scytale''' ===<br /> :One of the earliest forms of Cryptography is the scytale. (sounds like “Italy” in pronunciation). <br /> <br /> The earliest known reference to this type of coded message dates back to the 7th Century B.C. Though it was mentioned that early, the <br /> references did not make clear on just how this method of cryptography worked. That is until Plutarch (a Greek historian, biographer, <br /> essayist who lived approx 46-120 A.D.) explained the method in his books “Parallel Lives”, in particular Volume 19 which talked about <br /> the Spartan General Lysander and how he communicated with his army. <br /> <br /> Plutarch goes into detail on just how this method works..As shown in this quote from the aforementioned volume, <br /> <br /> &lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;i&gt;“The dispatch-scroll is of the following character. When the ephors send out an admiral or a general, they make two round pieces of <br /> wood exactly alike in length and thickness, so that each corresponds to the other in its dimensions, and keep one themselves, while <br /> they give the other to their envoy. These pieces of wood they call scytalae. Whenever, then, they wish to send some secret and <br /> important message, they make a scroll of parchment long and narrow, like a leathern strap, and wind it round their scytale, leaving no <br /> vacant space thereon, but covering its surface all round with the parchment. After doing this, they write what they wish on the <br /> parchment, just as it lies wrapped about the scytale; and when they have written their message, they take the parchment off and send <br /> it, without the piece of wood, to the commander. He, when he has received it, cannot otherwise get any meaning out of it,--since the <br /> letters have no connection, but are disarranged,--unless he takes his own scytale and winds the strip of parchment about it, so that, <br /> when its spiral course is restored perfectly, and that which follows is joined to that which precedes, he reads around the staff, and <br /> so discovers the continuity of the message. And the parchment, like the staff, is called scytale, as the thing measured bears the name <br /> of the measure.” &lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; —Plutarch, Lives (Lysander 19), ed. Bernadotte Perrin.<br /> <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scytale''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch#Parallel_Lives''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LysanderScytale''<br /> <br /> === '''Caesar Wheel'''===<br /> :: Another early form of ciphering was the Caesar wheel, also known as the Caesar Cipher.. Named after Julius Caesar (100 B.C. – 44 B.C.) who was documented as having used it. <br /> <br /> This was essentially two disks of difference sizes. The smaller one on top of the larger one, joined in the center in such a . Each wheel would then be sectioned along its edge. Each of these sections had a letter of the alphabet. The key is set in advance such that both the sender and receiver what it is. The key was nothing more than a number which indicated the letter shift needed to encode or decode a message.<br /> <br /> For example.. <br /> <br /> :::” If he had anything confidential to say, he wrote it in cipher, that is, by so changing the order of the letters of the alphabet, <br /> :::that not a word could be made out. “If anyone wishes to decipher these, and get at their meaning, he must substitute the fourth letter <br /> :::of the alphabet, namely D, for A, and so with the others.” —Suetonius, Life of Julius Caesar <br /> <br /> This is the easiest of the substitution ciphers. For example , it can be easily reverse engineered without having to know the key used. You’d just have to know the frequency of letters used in the language you. For example, in English if you know that “E” ,“T” and “A” were the most used letters in the alphabet you’d be well on your way to breaking the code. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_cipher''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_frequency''<br /> :::: ''http://www.scholastic.com/spyx/pdfs/Cipher_Wheel.pdf''<br /> <br /> <br /> === '''Jefferson Disk''' ===<br /> ::The Caesar Cipher would be the inspiration for Thomas Jefferson many centuries later. In 1795, Jefferson developed a cipher system with used a series of 36 wheels (or disks) positioned along a central spinal. Each wheel had on it’s edge a series of letters. Each disk is numbered and can be removed from the spinal, then put back on in any order. The order of the disks is the key.<br /> <br /> How this works is this… Both the sender and the receiver must have the disks in the same order. For example, for a 10 disk version might have a key like this 2,4,6,8,10,1,3,5,7,9. From there, the sender would arrange the wheels to spell out the message they wanted along one row. Then finding another row, copy the message from another row and that would be the coded message that would be sent. Since the receiver would have the disks in the same order, all they’d have to do would be spell out the coded message on the individual wheels then rotate them all at once until the sender’s message was shown. <br /> <br /> Though Jefferson invented the encryption, it didn’t catch on until later when it was also independently invented by Étienne Bazeries (French Cryptanalyst) about a century later. The Bazieries Cylinder was an improvement on the Jefferson Disk. With even further improvements, this would become the basis for the encoding system (M-94) the U.S. Army used from 1932- 1942. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_disk''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazeries_Cylinder''<br /> :::: ''http://www.monticello.org:8081/wheelcipher/wheelcipher.html''<br /> <br /> ==Credit==<br /> === Rob Klaers, Billy Andersen, &amp; Matt Mortiz ===</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=ITCwiki:Current_events&diff=5692 2012-04-25T01:36:57Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Scytale */</p> <hr /> <div>== '''A Brief History of Cypher text''' ==<br /> <br /> === '''Scytale''' ===<br /> : One of the earliest forms of Cryptography is the scytale. (sounds like “Italy” in pronunciation). <br /> : The earliest known reference to this type of coded message dates back to the 7th Century B.C. Though it was mentioned that early, the <br /> :references did not make clear on just how this method of cryptography worked. That is until Plutarch (a Greek historian, biographer, <br /> :essayist who lived approx 46-120 A.D.) explained the method in his books “Parallel Lives”, in particular Volume 19 which talked about <br /> :the Spartan General Lysander and how he communicated with his army. <br /> <br /> ::Plutarch goes into detail on just how this method works..As shown in this quote from the aforementioned volume, <br /> <br /> :::“The dispatch-scroll is of the following character. When the ephors send out an admiral or a general, they make two round pieces of <br /> :::wood exactly alike in length and thickness, so that each corresponds to the other in its dimensions, and keep one themselves, while <br /> :::they give the other to their envoy. These pieces of wood they call scytalae. Whenever, then, they wish to send some secret and <br /> :::important message, they make a scroll of parchment long and narrow, like a leathern strap, and wind it round their scytale, leaving no <br /> :::vacant space thereon, but covering its surface all round with the parchment. After doing this, they write what they wish on the <br /> :::parchment, just as it lies wrapped about the scytale; and when they have written their message, they take the parchment off and send <br /> :::it, without the piece of wood, to the commander. He, when he has received it, cannot otherwise get any meaning out of it,--since the <br /> :::letters have no connection, but are disarranged,--unless he takes his own scytale and winds the strip of parchment about it, so that, <br /> :::when its spiral course is restored perfectly, and that which follows is joined to that which precedes, he reads around the staff, and <br /> :::so discovers the continuity of the message. And the parchment, like the staff, is called scytale, as the thing measured bears the name <br /> :::of the measure.” —Plutarch, Lives (Lysander 19), ed. Bernadotte Perrin.<br /> <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scytale''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch#Parallel_Lives''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LysanderScytale''<br /> <br /> === '''Caesar Wheel'''===<br /> :: Another early form of ciphering was the Caesar wheel, also known as the Caesar Cipher.. Named after Julius Caesar (100 B.C. – 44 B.C.) who was documented as having used it. <br /> <br /> This was essentially two disks of difference sizes. The smaller one on top of the larger one, joined in the center in such a . Each wheel would then be sectioned along its edge. Each of these sections had a letter of the alphabet. The key is set in advance such that both the sender and receiver what it is. The key was nothing more than a number which indicated the letter shift needed to encode or decode a message.<br /> <br /> For example.. <br /> <br /> :::” If he had anything confidential to say, he wrote it in cipher, that is, by so changing the order of the letters of the alphabet, <br /> :::that not a word could be made out. “If anyone wishes to decipher these, and get at their meaning, he must substitute the fourth letter <br /> :::of the alphabet, namely D, for A, and so with the others.” —Suetonius, Life of Julius Caesar <br /> <br /> This is the easiest of the substitution ciphers. For example , it can be easily reverse engineered without having to know the key used. You’d just have to know the frequency of letters used in the language you. For example, in English if you know that “E” ,“T” and “A” were the most used letters in the alphabet you’d be well on your way to breaking the code. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_cipher''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_frequency''<br /> :::: ''http://www.scholastic.com/spyx/pdfs/Cipher_Wheel.pdf''<br /> <br /> <br /> === '''Jefferson Disk''' ===<br /> ::The Caesar Cipher would be the inspiration for Thomas Jefferson many centuries later. In 1795, Jefferson developed a cipher system with used a series of 36 wheels (or disks) positioned along a central spinal. Each wheel had on it’s edge a series of letters. Each disk is numbered and can be removed from the spinal, then put back on in any order. The order of the disks is the key.<br /> <br /> How this works is this… Both the sender and the receiver must have the disks in the same order. For example, for a 10 disk version might have a key like this 2,4,6,8,10,1,3,5,7,9. From there, the sender would arrange the wheels to spell out the message they wanted along one row. Then finding another row, copy the message from another row and that would be the coded message that would be sent. Since the receiver would have the disks in the same order, all they’d have to do would be spell out the coded message on the individual wheels then rotate them all at once until the sender’s message was shown. <br /> <br /> Though Jefferson invented the encryption, it didn’t catch on until later when it was also independently invented by Étienne Bazeries (French Cryptanalyst) about a century later. The Bazieries Cylinder was an improvement on the Jefferson Disk. With even further improvements, this would become the basis for the encoding system (M-94) the U.S. Army used from 1932- 1942. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_disk''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazeries_Cylinder''<br /> :::: ''http://www.monticello.org:8081/wheelcipher/wheelcipher.html''<br /> <br /> ==Credit==<br /> === Rob Klaers, Billy Andersen, &amp; Matt Mortiz ===</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=ITCwiki:Current_events&diff=5691 2012-04-25T01:36:10Z

<p>Klae0010: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''A Brief History of Cypher text''' ==<br /> <br /> === '''Scytale''' ===<br /> ::One of the earliest forms of Cryptography is the scytale. (sounds like “Italy” in pronunciation). <br /> ::The earliest known reference to this type of coded message dates back to the 7th Century B.C. Though it was mentioned that early, the <br /> :references did not make clear on just how this method of cryptography worked. That is until Plutarch (a Greek historian, biographer, <br /> :essayist who lived approx 46-120 A.D.) explained the method in his books “Parallel Lives”, in particular Volume 19 which talked about <br /> :the Spartan General Lysander and how he communicated with his army. <br /> <br /> ::Plutarch goes into detail on just how this method works..As shown in this quote from the aforementioned volume, <br /> <br /> :::“The dispatch-scroll is of the following character. When the ephors send out an admiral or a general, they make two round pieces of <br /> :::wood exactly alike in length and thickness, so that each corresponds to the other in its dimensions, and keep one themselves, while <br /> :::they give the other to their envoy. These pieces of wood they call scytalae. Whenever, then, they wish to send some secret and <br /> :::important message, they make a scroll of parchment long and narrow, like a leathern strap, and wind it round their scytale, leaving no <br /> :::vacant space thereon, but covering its surface all round with the parchment. After doing this, they write what they wish on the <br /> :::parchment, just as it lies wrapped about the scytale; and when they have written their message, they take the parchment off and send <br /> :::it, without the piece of wood, to the commander. He, when he has received it, cannot otherwise get any meaning out of it,--since the <br /> :::letters have no connection, but are disarranged,--unless he takes his own scytale and winds the strip of parchment about it, so that, <br /> :::when its spiral course is restored perfectly, and that which follows is joined to that which precedes, he reads around the staff, and <br /> :::so discovers the continuity of the message. And the parchment, like the staff, is called scytale, as the thing measured bears the name <br /> :::of the measure.” —Plutarch, Lives (Lysander 19), ed. Bernadotte Perrin.<br /> <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scytale''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch#Parallel_Lives''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LysanderScytale''<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === '''Caesar Wheel'''===<br /> :: Another early form of ciphering was the Caesar wheel, also known as the Caesar Cipher.. Named after Julius Caesar (100 B.C. – 44 B.C.) who was documented as having used it. <br /> <br /> This was essentially two disks of difference sizes. The smaller one on top of the larger one, joined in the center in such a . Each wheel would then be sectioned along its edge. Each of these sections had a letter of the alphabet. The key is set in advance such that both the sender and receiver what it is. The key was nothing more than a number which indicated the letter shift needed to encode or decode a message.<br /> <br /> For example.. <br /> <br /> :::” If he had anything confidential to say, he wrote it in cipher, that is, by so changing the order of the letters of the alphabet, <br /> :::that not a word could be made out. “If anyone wishes to decipher these, and get at their meaning, he must substitute the fourth letter <br /> :::of the alphabet, namely D, for A, and so with the others.” —Suetonius, Life of Julius Caesar <br /> <br /> This is the easiest of the substitution ciphers. For example , it can be easily reverse engineered without having to know the key used. You’d just have to know the frequency of letters used in the language you. For example, in English if you know that “E” ,“T” and “A” were the most used letters in the alphabet you’d be well on your way to breaking the code. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_cipher''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_frequency''<br /> :::: ''http://www.scholastic.com/spyx/pdfs/Cipher_Wheel.pdf''<br /> <br /> <br /> === '''Jefferson Disk''' ===<br /> ::The Caesar Cipher would be the inspiration for Thomas Jefferson many centuries later. In 1795, Jefferson developed a cipher system with used a series of 36 wheels (or disks) positioned along a central spinal. Each wheel had on it’s edge a series of letters. Each disk is numbered and can be removed from the spinal, then put back on in any order. The order of the disks is the key.<br /> <br /> How this works is this… Both the sender and the receiver must have the disks in the same order. For example, for a 10 disk version might have a key like this 2,4,6,8,10,1,3,5,7,9. From there, the sender would arrange the wheels to spell out the message they wanted along one row. Then finding another row, copy the message from another row and that would be the coded message that would be sent. Since the receiver would have the disks in the same order, all they’d have to do would be spell out the coded message on the individual wheels then rotate them all at once until the sender’s message was shown. <br /> <br /> Though Jefferson invented the encryption, it didn’t catch on until later when it was also independently invented by Étienne Bazeries (French Cryptanalyst) about a century later. The Bazieries Cylinder was an improvement on the Jefferson Disk. With even further improvements, this would become the basis for the encoding system (M-94) the U.S. Army used from 1932- 1942. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_disk''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazeries_Cylinder''<br /> :::: ''http://www.monticello.org:8081/wheelcipher/wheelcipher.html''<br /> <br /> ==Credit==<br /> === Rob Klaers, Billy Andersen, &amp; Matt Mortiz ===</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=ITCwiki:Current_events&diff=5690 2012-04-25T01:35:18Z

<p>Klae0010: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''A Brief History of Cypher text''' ==<br /> <br /> === '''Scytale''' ===<br /> ::One of the earliest forms of Cryptography is the scytale. (sounds like “Italy” in pronunciation). <br /> The earliest known reference to this type of coded message dates back to the 7th Century B.C. Though it was mentioned that early, the references did not make clear on just how this method of cryptography worked. That is until Plutarch (a Greek historian, biographer, essayist who lived approx 46-120 A.D.) explained the method in his books “Parallel Lives”, in particular Volume 19 which talked about the Spartan General Lysander and how he communicated with his army. <br /> <br /> Plutarch goes into detail on just how this method works..As shown in this quote from the aforementioned volume, <br /> <br /> :::“The dispatch-scroll is of the following character. When the ephors send out an admiral or a general, they make two round pieces of <br /> :::wood exactly alike in length and thickness, so that each corresponds to the other in its dimensions, and keep one themselves, while <br /> :::they give the other to their envoy. These pieces of wood they call scytalae. Whenever, then, they wish to send some secret and <br /> :::important message, they make a scroll of parchment long and narrow, like a leathern strap, and wind it round their scytale, leaving no <br /> :::vacant space thereon, but covering its surface all round with the parchment. After doing this, they write what they wish on the <br /> :::parchment, just as it lies wrapped about the scytale; and when they have written their message, they take the parchment off and send <br /> :::it, without the piece of wood, to the commander. He, when he has received it, cannot otherwise get any meaning out of it,--since the <br /> :::letters have no connection, but are disarranged,--unless he takes his own scytale and winds the strip of parchment about it, so that, <br /> :::when its spiral course is restored perfectly, and that which follows is joined to that which precedes, he reads around the staff, and <br /> :::so discovers the continuity of the message. And the parchment, like the staff, is called scytale, as the thing measured bears the name <br /> :::of the measure.” —Plutarch, Lives (Lysander 19), ed. Bernadotte Perrin.<br /> <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scytale''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch#Parallel_Lives''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LysanderScytale''<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === '''Caesar Wheel'''===<br /> :: Another early form of ciphering was the Caesar wheel, also known as the Caesar Cipher.. Named after Julius Caesar (100 B.C. – 44 B.C.) who was documented as having used it. <br /> <br /> This was essentially two disks of difference sizes. The smaller one on top of the larger one, joined in the center in such a . Each wheel would then be sectioned along its edge. Each of these sections had a letter of the alphabet. The key is set in advance such that both the sender and receiver what it is. The key was nothing more than a number which indicated the letter shift needed to encode or decode a message.<br /> <br /> For example.. <br /> <br /> :::” If he had anything confidential to say, he wrote it in cipher, that is, by so changing the order of the letters of the alphabet, <br /> :::that not a word could be made out. “If anyone wishes to decipher these, and get at their meaning, he must substitute the fourth letter <br /> :::of the alphabet, namely D, for A, and so with the others.” —Suetonius, Life of Julius Caesar <br /> <br /> This is the easiest of the substitution ciphers. For example , it can be easily reverse engineered without having to know the key used. You’d just have to know the frequency of letters used in the language you. For example, in English if you know that “E” ,“T” and “A” were the most used letters in the alphabet you’d be well on your way to breaking the code. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_cipher''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_frequency''<br /> :::: ''http://www.scholastic.com/spyx/pdfs/Cipher_Wheel.pdf''<br /> <br /> <br /> === '''Jefferson Disk''' ===<br /> ::The Caesar Cipher would be the inspiration for Thomas Jefferson many centuries later. In 1795, Jefferson developed a cipher system with used a series of 36 wheels (or disks) positioned along a central spinal. Each wheel had on it’s edge a series of letters. Each disk is numbered and can be removed from the spinal, then put back on in any order. The order of the disks is the key.<br /> <br /> How this works is this… Both the sender and the receiver must have the disks in the same order. For example, for a 10 disk version might have a key like this 2,4,6,8,10,1,3,5,7,9. From there, the sender would arrange the wheels to spell out the message they wanted along one row. Then finding another row, copy the message from another row and that would be the coded message that would be sent. Since the receiver would have the disks in the same order, all they’d have to do would be spell out the coded message on the individual wheels then rotate them all at once until the sender’s message was shown. <br /> <br /> Though Jefferson invented the encryption, it didn’t catch on until later when it was also independently invented by Étienne Bazeries (French Cryptanalyst) about a century later. The Bazieries Cylinder was an improvement on the Jefferson Disk. With even further improvements, this would become the basis for the encoding system (M-94) the U.S. Army used from 1932- 1942. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_disk''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazeries_Cylinder''<br /> :::: ''http://www.monticello.org:8081/wheelcipher/wheelcipher.html''<br /> <br /> ==Credit==<br /> === Rob Klaers, Billy Andersen, &amp; Matt Mortiz ===</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=ITCwiki:Current_events&diff=5689 2012-04-25T01:33:44Z

<p>Klae0010: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''A Brief History of Cypher text''' ==<br /> <br /> === '''Scytale''' ===<br /> ::One of the earliest forms of Cryptography is the scytale. (sounds like “Italy” in pronunciation). <br /> The earliest known reference to this type of coded message dates back to the 7th Century B.C. Though it was mentioned that early, the references did not make clear on just how this method of cryptography worked. That is until Plutarch (a Greek historian, biographer, essayist who lived approx 46-120 A.D.) explained the method in his books “Parallel Lives”, in particular Volume 19 which talked about the Spartan General Lysander and how he communicated with his army. <br /> <br /> Plutarch goes into detail on just how this method works..As shown in this quote from the aforementioned volume, <br /> <br /> “The dispatch-scroll is of the following character. When the ephors send out an admiral or a general, they make two round pieces of wood exactly alike in length and thickness, so that each corresponds to the other in its dimensions, and keep one themselves, while they give the other to their envoy. These pieces of wood they call scytalae. Whenever, then, they wish to send some secret and important message, they make a scroll of parchment long and narrow, like a leathern strap, and wind it round their scytale, leaving no vacant space thereon, but covering its surface all round with the parchment. After doing this, they write what they wish on the parchment, just as it lies wrapped about the scytale; and when they have written their message, they take the parchment off and send it, without the piece of wood, to the commander. He, when he has received it, cannot otherwise get any meaning out of it,--since the letters have no connection, but are disarranged,--unless he takes his own scytale and winds the strip of parchment about it, so that, when its spiral course is restored perfectly, and that which follows is joined to that which precedes, he reads around the staff, and so discovers the continuity of the message. And the parchment, like the staff, is called scytale, as the thing measured bears the name of the measure.” —Plutarch, Lives (Lysander 19), ed. Bernadotte Perrin.<br /> <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scytale''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch#Parallel_Lives''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LysanderScytale''<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === '''Caesar Wheel'''===<br /> :: Another early form of ciphering was the Caesar wheel, also known as the Caesar Cipher.. Named after Julius Caesar (100 B.C. – 44 B.C.) who was documented as having used it. <br /> <br /> This was essentially two disks of difference sizes. The smaller one on top of the larger one, joined in the center in such a . Each wheel would then be sectioned along its edge. Each of these sections had a letter of the alphabet. The key is set in advance such that both the sender and receiver what it is. The key was nothing more than a number which indicated the letter shift needed to encode or decode a message.<br /> <br /> For example.. <br /> <br /> ” If he had anything confidential to say, he wrote it in cipher, that is, by so changing the order of the letters of the alphabet, that not a word could be made out. “If anyone wishes to decipher these, and get at their meaning, he must substitute the fourth letter of the alphabet, namely D, for A, and so with the others.”<br /> —Suetonius, Life of Julius Caesar <br /> <br /> This is the easiest of the substitution ciphers. For example , it can be easily reverse engineered without having to know the key used. You’d just have to know the frequency of letters used in the language you. For example, in English if you know that “E” ,“T” and “A” were the most used letters in the alphabet you’d be well on your way to breaking the code. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_cipher''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_frequency''<br /> :::: ''http://www.scholastic.com/spyx/pdfs/Cipher_Wheel.pdf''<br /> <br /> <br /> === '''Jefferson Disk''' ===<br /> ::The Caesar Cipher would be the inspiration for Thomas Jefferson many centuries later. In 1795, Jefferson developed a cipher system with used a series of 36 wheels (or disks) positioned along a central spinal. Each wheel had on it’s edge a series of letters. Each disk is numbered and can be removed from the spinal, then put back on in any order. The order of the disks is the key.<br /> <br /> How this works is this… Both the sender and the receiver must have the disks in the same order. For example, for a 10 disk version might have a key like this 2,4,6,8,10,1,3,5,7,9. From there, the sender would arrange the wheels to spell out the message they wanted along one row. Then finding another row, copy the message from another row and that would be the coded message that would be sent. Since the receiver would have the disks in the same order, all they’d have to do would be spell out the coded message on the individual wheels then rotate them all at once until the sender’s message was shown. <br /> <br /> Though Jefferson invented the encryption, it didn’t catch on until later when it was also independently invented by Étienne Bazeries (French Cryptanalyst) about a century later. The Bazieries Cylinder was an improvement on the Jefferson Disk. With even further improvements, this would become the basis for the encoding system (M-94) the U.S. Army used from 1932- 1942. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_disk''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazeries_Cylinder''<br /> :::: ''http://www.monticello.org:8081/wheelcipher/wheelcipher.html''<br /> <br /> ==Credit==<br /> === Rob Klaers, Billy Andersen, &amp; Matt Mortiz ===</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=ITCwiki:Current_events&diff=5688 2012-04-25T01:29:40Z

<p>Klae0010: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''A Brief History of Cypher text''' ==<br /> <br /> === '''Scytale''' ===<br /> ::One of the earliest forms of Cryptography is the scytale. (sounds like “Italy” in pronunciation). <br /> The earliest known reference to this type of coded message dates back to the 7th Century B.C. Though it was mentioned that early, the references did not make clear on just how this method of cryptography worked. That is until Plutarch (a Greek historian, biographer, essayist who lived approx 46-120 A.D.) explained the method in his books “Parallel Lives”, in particular Volume 19 which talked about the Spartan General Lysander and how he communicated with his army. <br /> <br /> Plutarch goes into detail on just how this method works..As shown in this quote from the aforementioned volume, <br /> <br /> “The dispatch-scroll is of the following character. When the ephors send out an admiral or a general, they make two round pieces of wood exactly alike in length and thickness, so that each corresponds to the other in its dimensions, and keep one themselves, while they give the other to their envoy. These pieces of wood they call scytalae. Whenever, then, they wish to send some secret and important message, they make a scroll of parchment long and narrow, like a leathern strap, and wind it round their scytale, leaving no vacant space thereon, but covering its surface all round with the parchment. After doing this, they write what they wish on the parchment, just as it lies wrapped about the scytale; and when they have written their message, they take the parchment off and send it, without the piece of wood, to the commander. He, when he has received it, cannot otherwise get any meaning out of it,--since the letters have no connection, but are disarranged,--unless he takes his own scytale and winds the strip of parchment about it, so that, when its spiral course is restored perfectly, and that which follows is joined to that which precedes, he reads around the staff, and so discovers the continuity of the message. And the parchment, like the staff, is called scytale, as the thing measured bears the name of the measure.” —Plutarch, Lives (Lysander 19), ed. Bernadotte Perrin.<br /> <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scytale''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch#Parallel_Lives''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LysanderScytale''<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === '''Caesar Wheel'''===<br /> :: Another early form of ciphering was the Caesar wheel, also known as the Caesar Cipher.. Named after Julius Caesar (100 B.C. – 44 B.C.) who was documented as having used it. <br /> <br /> This was essentially two disks of difference sizes. The smaller one on top of the larger one, joined in the center in such a . Each wheel would then be sectioned along its edge. Each of these sections had a letter of the alphabet. The key is set in advance such that both the sender and receiver what it is. The key was nothing more than a number which indicated the letter shift needed to encode or decode a message.<br /> <br /> For example.. <br /> <br /> ” If he had anything confidential to say, he wrote it in cipher, that is, by so changing the order of the letters of the alphabet, that not a word could be made out. “If anyone wishes to decipher these, and get at their meaning, he must substitute the fourth letter of the alphabet, namely D, for A, and so with the others.”<br /> —Suetonius, Life of Julius Caesar <br /> <br /> This is the easiest of the substitution ciphers. For example , it can be easily reverse engineered without having to know the key used. You’d just have to know the frequency of letters used in the language you. For example, in English if you know that “E” ,“T” and “A” were the most used letters in the alphabet you’d be well on your way to breaking the code. <br /> <br /> References:<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_cipher''<br /> :::: ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_frequency''<br /> :::: ''http://www.scholastic.com/spyx/pdfs/Cipher_Wheel.pdf''<br /> <br /> <br /> === '''Performing the Installation stages''' ===<br /> ::* Start installation<br /> ::* Choosing language, keyboard and storage type<br /> ::* Selecting hostname, time zone &amp; root password<br /> ::* Configuring storage devices<br /> ::* Configuring the boot loader<br /> ::* Selecting and installing packages<br /> ::* Completing first boot wizard<br /> <br /> ==Credit==<br /> === Rob Klaers, Billy Andersen, &amp; Matt Mortiz ===</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=ITCwiki:Current_events&diff=5687 2012-04-25T01:21:04Z

<p>Klae0010: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''A Brief History of Cypher text''' ==<br /> ::^ Preparation and installation of Fedora Linux using good practices.<br /> ::^ Outline the structure of Linux interface.<br /> ::^ Enter basic shell commands and find command documentation.<br /> ::^ Properly shutdown the Linux OS<br /> <br /> === '''Preparing for Installation''' ===<br /> ::* Hardware Compatibility List (HCL)<br /> ::* The minimum requirement s for Fedora 13 Linux can be found :<br /> :::: ''http://docs.fedoraproject.org''<br /> ::* Preinstallation checklist<br /> ::* A system checklist that can compared against the HCL during installation. <br /> ::* Information will include :<br /> :::• CPU (Type /MHz)<br /> :::• RAM (Mb)<br /> :::• Keyboard model and layout<br /> :::• Hard Disk size (MB)<br /> :::• Host Name<br /> :::• Network card IP configuration<br /> :::• IP address, Netmask Gatway, DNS servers, and DHCP<br /> :::• Linux Packages to install <br /> :::• Video Card Make and Model<br /> :::• Video Card RAM (Mb)<br /> :::• Monitor make and model<br /> :::• Monitor Vsync and HSync ranges<br /> <br /> === '''Installation Methods'''===<br /> ::* FTP server across network<br /> ::* HTTP web server across network<br /> ::* NFS server across network<br /> ::* SMB (SAMBA) server across network<br /> ::* Packages located on HD<br /> ::* CD-ROM or bootable DVD media<br /> <br /> === '''Performing the Installation stages''' ===<br /> ::* Start installation<br /> ::* Choosing language, keyboard and storage type<br /> ::* Selecting hostname, time zone &amp; root password<br /> ::* Configuring storage devices<br /> ::* Configuring the boot loader<br /> ::* Selecting and installing packages<br /> ::* Completing first boot wizard<br /> <br /> ==Credit==<br /> === Rob Klaers, Billy Andersen, &amp; Matt Mortiz ===</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=ITCwiki:Current_events&diff=5686 2012-04-25T01:19:17Z

<p>Klae0010: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''Chapter 2 Linux Installation and Usage''' ==<br /> ::^ Preparation and installation of Fedora Linux using good practices.<br /> ::^ Outline the structure of Linux interface.<br /> ::^ Enter basic shell commands and find command documentation.<br /> ::^ Properly shutdown the Linux OS<br /> <br /> === '''Preparing for Installation''' ===<br /> ::* Hardware Compatibility List (HCL)<br /> ::* The minimum requirement s for Fedora 13 Linux can be found :<br /> :::: ''http://docs.fedoraproject.org''<br /> ::* Preinstallation checklist<br /> ::* A system checklist that can compared against the HCL during installation. <br /> ::* Information will include :<br /> :::• CPU (Type /MHz)<br /> :::• RAM (Mb)<br /> :::• Keyboard model and layout<br /> :::• Hard Disk size (MB)<br /> :::• Host Name<br /> :::• Network card IP configuration<br /> :::• IP address, Netmask Gatway, DNS servers, and DHCP<br /> :::• Linux Packages to install <br /> :::• Video Card Make and Model<br /> :::• Video Card RAM (Mb)<br /> :::• Monitor make and model<br /> :::• Monitor Vsync and HSync ranges<br /> <br /> === '''Installation Methods'''===<br /> ::* FTP server across network<br /> ::* HTTP web server across network<br /> ::* NFS server across network<br /> ::* SMB (SAMBA) server across network<br /> ::* Packages located on HD<br /> ::* CD-ROM or bootable DVD media<br /> <br /> === '''Performing the Installation stages''' ===<br /> ::* Start installation<br /> ::* Choosing language, keyboard and storage type<br /> ::* Selecting hostname, time zone &amp; root password<br /> ::* Configuring storage devices<br /> ::* Configuring the boot loader<br /> ::* Selecting and installing packages<br /> ::* Completing first boot wizard<br /> <br /> ==Credit==<br /> === Rob Klaers, Billy Andersen, &amp; Matt Mortiz ===</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=ITCwiki:Current_events&diff=5685 2012-04-25T01:18:47Z

<p>Klae0010: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''Chapter 2 Linux Installation and Usage''' ==<br /> ::^ Preparation and installation of Fedora Linux using good practices.<br /> ::^ Outline the structure of Linux interface.<br /> ::^ Enter basic shell commands and find command documentation.<br /> ::^ Properly shutdown the Linux OS<br /> <br /> === '''Preparing for Installation''' ===<br /> ::* Hardware Compatibility List (HCL)<br /> ::* The minimum requirement s for Fedora 13 Linux can be found :<br /> :::: ''http://docs.fedoraproject.org''<br /> ::* Preinstallation checklist<br /> ::* A system checklist that can compared against the HCL during installation. <br /> ::* Information will include :<br /> :::• CPU (Type /MHz)<br /> :::• RAM (Mb)<br /> :::• Keyboard model and layout<br /> :::• Hard Disk size (MB)<br /> :::• Host Name<br /> :::• Network card IP configuration<br /> :::• IP address, Netmask Gatway, DNS servers, and DHCP<br /> :::• Linux Packages to install <br /> :::• Video Card Make and Model<br /> :::• Video Card RAM (Mb)<br /> :::• Monitor make and model<br /> :::• Monitor Vsync and HSync ranges<br /> <br /> === '''Installation Methods'''===<br /> ::* FTP server across network<br /> ::* HTTP web server across network<br /> ::* NFS server across network<br /> ::* SMB (SAMBA) server across network<br /> ::* Packages located on HD<br /> ::* CD-ROM or bootable DVD media<br /> <br /> === '''Performing the Installation stages''' ===<br /> ::* Start installation<br /> ::* Choosing language, keyboard and storage type<br /> ::* Selecting hostname, time zone &amp; root password<br /> ::* Configuring storage devices<br /> ::* Configuring the boot loader<br /> ::* Selecting and installing packages<br /> ::* Completing first boot wizard<br /> <br /> ==Credit==<br /> === All info compiled, edited and coded by : Rob Klaers, Billy Andersen, &amp; Matt Mortiz ===</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=User:Klae0010&diff=5684 2012-04-25T00:46:13Z

<p>Klae0010: </p> <hr /> <div>Here is a list of my wiki pages.. <br /> <br /> Chapter 5 Linux<br /> <br /> <br /> Chapter 2 Linux<br /> Chapter 8 Linux <br /> Linux+ Giude to Certificationn, 3rd Ed. <br /> <br /> Service project for CCNA Security.</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=User:Klae0010&diff=5683 2012-04-25T00:44:27Z

<p>Klae0010: Blanked the page</p> <hr /> <div></div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=User:Klae0010&diff=5682 2012-04-25T00:44:10Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Wiki page credit */</p> <hr /> <div>'''Chpt 5 Study Guide'''<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Boot Process *(pg. 240) == <br /> ''System power &gt; CPU looks for BIOS &gt; CPU Runs Bios''<br /> <br /> ::BIOS checks for new hardware, configure hardware, and looks for boot sector.This is when the BIOS finds the boot loader in <br /> ::the boot sector.Boot loader takes over from BIOS. If a multistage loader is available, a secondary loader is searched for. <br /> ::Finally, the boot loader finds the kernel, loads it into memory and then executes it. Once the LINUX kernel takes over, it then <br /> ::begins to initial devices, mounting root partition and other such tasks.The initial program is also started at this stage.It <br /> ::gets a process ID of 1 because it’s the first program run on the system.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Retrieving Information about the boot process *(pg. 239)===<br /> : Certain information about the Linux kernel and module log info can be found in the kernel ring buffer. <br /> : This info is displayed during the boot process, but is shown too fast to be read. <br /> : To access this info type the following command..<br /> :: '''#dmesg | less''' <br /> :: '''#dmesg &gt; boot.messages''' <br /> <br /> === Locating and Interpreting Boot Messages (pg. 239) ===<br /> : Use ''less'' and it’s search functions<br /> : Look for hardware type names<br /> : Look for hardware chipset names<br /> : Study output from a working system<br /> <br /> == Installing Boot Loaders (pg. 226) ==<br /> :: The master boot record (MBR) contains a partition table and a boot loader (aka ''boot manager''). The boot loader is <br /> :: software which the BIOS reads and executes when the system begins to boot<br /> <br /> <br /> === Two main boot loaders for Linux ===<br /> ==== '''LILO''' ''(Linux Loader)'' (pg. 228)====<br /> :: ''Once the default boot loader.''<br /> :: ''Slowly being overtaken by GRUB.'' <br /> :: ''Small, and useful.'' <br /> <br /> :: ''Can be configured using the '''/etc/lilo.conf''' file.''<br /> :: Which is broken into two main sections :<br /> <br /> :: '''Global options''' <br /> ::: Boot loader location<br /> ::: Default stanza<br /> ::: Boot prompt <br /> ::: Boot timeout<br /> :: '''Per-Image''' <br /> ::: Kept in sections known as ''stanzas''. <br /> ::: ''Can also be further separated depending on if they’re for a kernel or OS.'' <br /> ::: Linux Boot Image<br /> ::: Non-Linux Boot Partition<br /> ::: OS Label<br /> ::: RAM Disk <br /> <br /> <br /> ==== '''GRUB''' ''(Grand Unified Boot Loader)'' (pg. 233) ====<br /> :: ''Has taken over as default boot loader for many LINUX distributions''<br /> :: ''Offers more configurations than LILO''<br /> ::: GRUB has some ‘quirks’<br /> :::: Unlike Linux, GRUB numbers drives. <br /> :::: Instead of '''/dev/hda''' .. It would be '''/dev/hd0''' <br /> :::: Doesn’t distinguish between PATA, SATA, or SCSI drives.<br /> :::: GRUB also numbers partitions on a drive starting with '''0''', instead of '''1'''<br /> ::::: ''So partition 1 on drive 1 would look like this '''(hd0,0)'''''<br /> ::::: ''Floppy devices are referred to as '''(fd0)'''''<br /> <br /> :: '''Global Options'''<br /> ::: Default OS<br /> ::: Timeout<br /> ::: Background Graphic<br /> :: '''Per Image Options'''<br /> ::: Title<br /> ::: GRUB root<br /> ::: Kernel Specification<br /> <br /> == Runlevels And Initialization Process (pg. 241) ==<br /> : Linux relies on runlevels to determine which features are available. <br /> : Run levels are labels 0 thru 6. Each one being assigned to a set of services that should be active. <br /> : Understanding the purpose of runlevels makes for identifying services that are active easier. <br /> <br /> <br /> === Checking runlevel ===<br /> : Generally done prior to changing or to check status if something isn’t working<br /> : This is done by inspecting the '''/etc/initab''' file with the ''less'' command or opening it in an editor.<br /> <br /> === Managing Runlevels (pg. 245) ===<br /> : '''Chkconfig''' <br /> :: Lists the services and their runlevels.<br /> ::: Ex. Chkconfig –list <br /> : '''ntsysv''' <br /> :: Used mainly on Red Hat<br /> :: Interactive text tool<br /> :: Use your arrow keys to select a service. space bar to toggle the service on or off. <br /> :: Use the '''--level''' option to select other or multiple runlevels.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runlevels (pg. 242) ===<br /> : '''0''' ... ''Transitional, Shuts down the system.'' <br /> ::''Should completely power down the system.''<br /> : '''1''', '''s''', or '''S''' ... ''Single user mode.''<br /> ::''Used for low-level system maintenance impaired by normal system operation.''<br /> : '''2''' ... ''Full muti-user mode with a graphical login.''<br /> ::''Used on Debian'' <br /> : '''3''' ... ''Full multi-user mode with a console login.''<br /> ::''Used on Fedora, Mandriva, Red Hat, and most other distributions.'' <br /> : '''4''' ... ''Undefined by default''<br /> ::''Used for customization''<br /> : '''5''' ...'' Same as runlevel 3 with the addition of having X run with XDM (graphical) login.''<br /> : '''6''' ...''Used to reboot the system.''<br /> ::''Also a transitional runlevel.''<br /> <br /> === Determining Current Runlevel ===<br /> : Once system is up and running runlevel info can be checked by entering : <br /> :: ''' # runlevel''' <br /> ::: '''N 2'''<br /> <br /> :: ''The first character is the previous runlevel.'' <br /> :: '''''N''' = system hasn’t changed runlevel since starting''<br /> :: '''''2''' = is the current runlevel''<br /> === Changing runlevels on a running system ===<br /> : This can be done with the init (or telinit), shutdown, halt, reboot, or poweroff commands.<br /> <br /> ::''shutdown [option] [time] “[Message]” '' <br /> ::: ex. '''shutdown –r +15''' “System going down for maintenance.” <br /> <br /> :Options <br /> :: '''-h''' ...Halt or power off the computer. (runlevel 0) <br /> :: '''-r''' ...Reboots the system. (runlevel 6) <br /> :: '''-c''' ...Cancels a scheduled shutdown. Time hh:mm <br /> :::'' Tells the computer when to run the shutdown command in a 24 hour format.'' <br /> :: '''+ t''' ...t = time to shutdown in minutes. <br /> :: '''Message''' ...Adds a message at the end of the command<br /> <br /> == Runlevel Services (pg.243) ==<br /> <br /> === Two main ways to affect what programs run as you enter a new runlevel.===<br /> <br /> :: '''/etc/inittab''' <br /> ::: ''Id:runlevels:action:process'' <br /> ::: Identification code <br /> ::: Consists of a sequence of 1-4 characters to identify its function<br /> ::: Applicable runlevels <br /> ::: List of runlevels for which this entry applies.<br /> ::: Action to be taken<br /> ::: Tells init how to treat the function.<br /> ::: Process to run<br /> ::: Process to run for this entry.<br /> ::: Includes options and arguments<br /> <br /> :: '''SysV''' (pg.244)<br /> ::: Controls what startup scrips start or stop services depending on the parameters that are passed.<br /> :::'''S''' ...''rc passes the start parameter to all scrips that begin with the letter '''S'''.''<br /> :::'''K''' ...''rc passes the stop services to all scrips that begin with the letter '''K'''.''<br /> == Vi (pg. 250) ==<br /> <br /> : ''First full-screen text editor built for linux.''<br /> : ''Used for a emergency recovery situations.''<br /> : ''Small and simple.''<br /> : ''Can fit on a floppy disk.'' <br /> : ''3 modes of operation.''<br /> <br /> === Vi Modes ===<br /> <br /> <br /> ; '''Command mode''' <br /> : Accepts single letter commands.<br /> : '''i''' and a = enter insert mode<br /> : '''o''' =opens a line below the current one.<br /> <br /> ; '''Ex mode''' <br /> : Used to manipulate and save current flies and run outside programs.<br /> : Type :x from command mode to enter Ex mode. <br /> : '''x''' = the command you want to use.<br /> : Automatically returns to command mode when finished. <br /> : Also referred to as colon commands<br /> <br /> ; '''Insert mode''' <br /> : Used to enter text.<br /> : Most input results in text appearing on the screen.<br /> : Use '''Esc''' key to return to command mode.<br /> <br /> === Using Vi ===<br /> : Use vi [file name] to launch Vi<br /> :: Ex. '''vi lilo.conf''' <br /> <br /> ==== Command mode ====<br /> : The up, down, left, and right keys are used to move the curser.<br /> : '''yy''' and '''dd''' to ''yank (copy)'' text to a buffer.<br /> : '''dd''' also ''deletes'' the lines that are yanked.<br /> : Extentions of the '''y''' and '''d''' commands.<br /> : '''p''' is used to paste the contents of the buffer.<br /> <br /> ==== Ex mode ====<br /> : ''':w''' saves the file.<br /> : ''':q''' quits vi<br /> :: Only works if the changes have been saved or used with '''!'''. (Ex. :q!)<br /> : ''':e''' edits a new file<br /> :: Ex. ''':e /etc/inittab''' loads /etc/inittab for editing.<br /> :: Only works if existing file has been saved or used with an !. (Ex. :e! /etc/inittab) <br /> : ''':![command]''' executes the external command.<br /> :: Ex. :!ls executes the list command.<br /> <br /> ==== Insert mode ====<br /> : In command mode you can use '''R''', '''i''', and '''a''' to enter insert mode. <br /> :: '''R''' - Enters text replacement.<br /> ::: Replace appears in the status line.<br /> :: '''i''' - Enters text insertion<br /> :: '''a''' - Enters text insertion but advances the curser one space.<br /> ::: Can be useful at the end of a line <br /> :: '''~''' - Used to change the case of a single word.<br /> :: '''u''' - Undo’s any changes<br /> :: '''o''' - Opens any text.<br /> ::: It inserts a new line below the current line while entering insert mode on that line.<br /> :: '''G''' - Goes to a specific line. <br /> :: ''':%s/[oringinal string]/[replacement]''' <br /> ::: Replaces all occurrences of one string with another.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''NOTE''' : ''all page numbers reference the CompTIA Linux+ Complete Study Guide by Roderick W. Smith ISBN 978-0-470-88845-2''</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=Chapter_8_Study_Guide&diff=5353 2012-03-16T03:32:00Z

<p>Klae0010: </p> <hr /> <div>'''Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows''' <br /> ----<br /> <br /> <br /> == Boot Process== <br /> *Power on <br /> *System initializes<br /> *BIOS performs POST (power-on self test)<br /> *BIOS checks configuration and checks for boot devices and an OS to execute<br /> ** ''Typically floppy disks, CDs, DVDs, and USB devices are checked as they can contain installation media for an OS.'' <br /> ** ''If an OS isn’t found, the BIOS will check the MBR/GPT on the first HD.'' <br /> ** ''MBR/GPT may point to the partition where the boot loader found. If this is the case then the partition where the boot loader is found is called the active partition.'' <br /> <br /> ::: '''''See page 347 of the book for the flowchart of the boot process'''''<br /> <br /> :: ''Boot loader – main purpose is to load the OS kernel into memory.'' <br /> ::: '''NOTE:''' ''There can only be one active partition per HD.'' <br /> *Regardless of whether the boot loader is loaded from the MBR/GPT or the active partition the rest of the boot process continues as normal. Which is.. The kernel is executed and loaded into memory. <br /> *After loading the kernel, the boot loader becomes inactive. <br /> *Kernel continues by loading daemons into memory<br /> *Daemons are a system process which performs tasks such as printing scheduling, and OS maintenance. <br /> **The first daemon process is called the initialize (init) daemon. It’s responsible for loading all the other daemons on the system required to bring the system to a usable state where users can interact with it.<br /> <br /> == Boot Loaders==<br /> <br /> :As mentioned, the primary task of boot loaders is to load the OS kernel into memory. They do secondary tasks as well. This includes passing info the kernel during system startup and booting other OS’s which may be on the HD.<br /> &lt;br /&gt;<br /> ::Using a boot loader to boot one of several OS’s is known as '''dual booting'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === GRUB===<br /> : The most common and only boot loader supported by Fedora 13.<br /> :3 Stages<br /> ::Stage 1 : Generally resides in MBR/GPT and points to Stage 1.5<br /> ::Stages 1.5 : Resides in the /boot/grub directory and loads the file support and loads Stage 2<br /> ::Stage 2 : Also, reside in the /boot/grub directory. This part actually performs the boot loader operations and displayed the graphic boot loader screen. <br /> <br /> ::: This can be configured by editing the config file found at '''(/boot/grub/grub.conf)'''.<br /> ::: This is read by Stage 2, which is located on the partition called GRUB root partition.<br /> ::: To be able to read the info in '''boot/grub/grub.conf''' you must first understand how GRUB refers to partitions on HDs. <br /> : The format used is : ('''hd&lt;drive#&gt;,&lt;partition#&gt;''')<br /> :Examples. <br /> ::'' (hd0,0)'' = 1st HD , 1st Partition<br /> ::''(hd0,1)'' = 1st HD , 2nd Partition<br /> ::''(hd1,2)'' = 2st HD , 3st Partition<br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command :<br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda<br /> <br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command line: <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda <br /> :You can also use : <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda1<br /> : This is used to install GRUB Stage 1 to the front of the 1st primary part of the HD. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === LILO===<br /> <br /> :This is the traditional boot loader for Linux.<br /> :: No longer supported. <br /> :: Often found on distros which require a smaller boot loader, as well as legacy distros. <br /> :Can reside on the first sector of an active Linux partition, as with GRUB can be found in the MBR/GPT of the HD. When this is the case, when the computer completes the POST and locates LILO, a LILO boot : prompt appears. <br /> :Hitting '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' will display a list of OSs to boot. <br /> <br /> ::: A list of common '''/etc/lilo.conf''' keywords used to edit that file can be found on on page 353 of your book.<br /> <br /> :As robust as LILO is from time to time you may encounter a problem during loading. When this happens you’ll get an error code representing the problem. <br /> <br /> :::A list of commmon LILO error messages can be found on page 354 of your book. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === Dual Booting Linux===<br /> <br /> :Dual booting is the ability to boot to one of several different Oss which may be available on your computer. Basically the ability to boot a Linux system on the same computer you might also want to use to boot Win 7..or XP. <br /> <br /> ::You can dual boot using either GRUB or LILO.<br /> <br /> ::The recommended procedure to install the other OS(s) prior to installing Linux.<br /> <br /> ::The reason behind this is that Linux will detect the other OS(s) and place the appropriate entry into the boot loader config file.<br /> <br /> :LILO cannot boot load the Window kernel directly. <br /> ::It needs the ''other='' ''''keyword'''' in the '''/etc/lilo.conf''' file to tell it where to find the boot loader for Windows. <br /> <br /> :By adding ''optional'' this prevents the GRUB boot loader from looking for a Linux kernel. This is also followed by the label keyword which just IDs the OS being loaded should you his the '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' key at the LILO prompt. <br /> <br /> '''Alternate way to Dual Boot'''<br /> :You can use a Windows Boot Loader (WBL) the same way you can use a Linux Boot Loader. <br /> <br /> :As it’s not designed to boot the Linux kernel, you need to go into the WBL and modify some some components <br /> <br /> :This can be a bit involved so easier to just install Linux after any other OSs you may also want to Dual Boot. <br /> :Page 358 details what you would need to do if this is how you want to dual boot. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Linux Initialization==<br /> <br /> :After the boot loader loads the Linux OS kernel into memory, the kernel resumes control and executes the first daemon, called ''init'', on the system.<br /> <br /> :: Remember: ''A daemon is a Linux system process that provides a certain service.'' <br /> <br /> :The init daemon uses configuration file, ''/etc/initab'' (short for “init table”) to determine the number of daemons that needs to be loaded on the system.<br /> <br /> :The init daemon is responsible for uploading daemons that are loaded into memory when the system is halted or rebooted.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runlevels===<br /> <br /> :The init daemon often has to manage several daemons at once.<br /> <br /> :Each category is categorized into Runlevels.<br /> <br /> :What is a runlevel? A runlevel defines the number and type of daemons that are loaded into memory and executed by the kernel on a particular system.<br /> <br /> :They are seven standard runlevels:<br /> :: '''0''' ... ''Transitional, Shuts down the system.'' <br /> :::''Should completely power down the system.''<br /> :: '''1''', '''s''', or '''S''' ... ''Single user mode.''<br /> :::''Used for low-level system maintenance impaired by normal system operation.''<br /> :: '''2''' ... ''Full muti-user mode with a graphical login.''<br /> :::''Used on Debian'' <br /> :: '''3''' ... ''Full multi-user mode with a console login.''<br /> :::''Used on Fedora, Mandriva, Red Hat, and most other distributions.'' <br /> :: '''4''' ... ''Undefined by default''<br /> :::''Used for customization''<br /> :: '''5''' ...'' Same as runlevel 3 with the addition of having X run with XDM (graphical) login.''<br /> :: '''6''' ...''Used to reboot the system.''<br /> :::''Also a transitional runlevel.''<br /> <br /> : '''To check out the current and/or previous runlevel.'''<br /> :: Type the runlevel command.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::N=nonexistent<br /> :::5= current runlevel.<br /> <br /> ::To change the runlevel from 5 to 1 type command<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 1<br /> <br /> ::If you’re in single mode and you want to change the runlevel from 1 back to 5. Type the following command.:<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 5<br /> <br /> ::The results are<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::S 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> ::Notice that the runlevel command displays the most current and most recent runlevel.<br /> :Unless you specify, the init daemon will run the default runlevel indicated in the '''/etc/inittab file'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runtime config scripts===<br /> <br /> :Scripts that run during the boot process. The purpose is to start daemons and bring the system to a useable state.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Configuring Daemon Setup===<br /> <br /> :Points to the appropriate scripts within the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. <br /> <br /> :Most Daemon scripts accept the arguments '''start, stop,''' and '''restart'''.<br /> <br /> :After system startup you can execute them directly from the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # ''/etc/rc.d/init.d/crond restart''<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :Or you can use the '''service command''' to start, stop or restart any daemons listed in the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. To restart the crond daemon type this.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # service cond restart<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To view and modify daemons that are started in each runlevel, you can use the '''chkconfig''' command.<br /> <br /> :The chkconfig command views and manipulates the appropriate runtime configuration files in the '''/etc/rc.d/rc*.d''' directories.<br /> <br /> :For example the following command indicates the ntpd daemon is not started in any runlevel,<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:off 4:off 5:off 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To configure the ntpd daemon to start in runlevels 3 and 5, and to verify the results, you could run the following commands.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – level 35 ntpd on'''<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:on 4:off 5:on 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> == X Windows System==<br /> :Components of the Linux GUI<br /> :Graphical Programs (X Clients)<br /> :Desktop environment<br /> :Window Manager<br /> :X Windows<br /> :Video Hardware<br /> <br /> === X Windows===<br /> :Developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1984<br /> :Maintained as Open Source Software by the X.Org Foundation<br /> :The freely available version used in may Linux distributions is called XFree86<br /> <br /> <br /> === Windows Manager and Desktop Environs===<br /> <br /> ::Window managers are used to modify the look and feel of X Windows. <br /> :: Common windows managers can be found on page 370 of your book. <br /> <br /> :'''K Desktop Environment (KDE)'''<br /> ::Released in 1996<br /> ::Uses K Window Manager (kwin) and Qt toolkit<br /> <br /> : '''GNOME'''<br /> :: Created in 1997<br /> :: Uses Metacity Window Manager and GTK+ toolkit<br /> <br /> <br /> === Starting and Stopping X Windows===<br /> <br /> :*GNOME Display Manager writes the chosen desktop environment in the Session menu to a '''.dmrc''' (display manager runtime configuration) file. '''/home/user1/.dmrc''' file<br /> <br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]# '''cat . dmrc''' <br /> :::[Desktop]<br /> :::Session=kde<br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]#_<br /> <br /> :*Root user in not allowed to log into GNOME Display Manager by default.<br /> ::'''/etc/pam.d/gdm''' and '''/etc/pam.d/gdm-password''' <br /> ::# auth required pam_succeed_if.so user !=root quiet<br /> :*GNOME Display Manager can be start manually using the gdm command<br /> <br /> <br /> == Configuring X Windows==<br /> <br /> :X.Org configuration file is /etc/X11/xorg.conf<br /> :XFree86 configuration file is /etc/X11/XF86Config <br /> :Mouse-test<br /> :System-config-keyboard command<br /> :System-config-display<br /> :Xvidtune to fine tune vertical and horizontal refresh rate.<br /> <br /> ----<br /> Information complied by Robert Klaers, LaPrice Ali, &amp; Sean Benecker</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=Franske_CNT-2311&diff=5352 2012-03-16T03:31:07Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Chapter Study Guides */</p> <hr /> <div>This is the homepage for the CNT-2311 classes taught by Dr. Ben Franske.<br /> <br /> =Current Course Materials=<br /> <br /> == General Course Information ==<br /> * [https://docs.google.com/a/ihcnt.net/spreadsheet/viewform?formkey=dE5lWno3NEQybjdLOW52OW5aNWpfdnc6MQ First Day Sign In Form]<br /> * [[Franske CNT-2311 Syllabus|Course Syllabus]]<br /> * [[Franske CNT-2311 SP12 Schedule|Spring 2012 Course Schedule]]<br /> * [[Franske CNT-2311 SP12 Labs|Lab List]]<br /> * [[Franske Lab Report Format|Lab Report Format]]<br /> * [[Franske CNT-2311 SP12 Chapter Groups|Spring 2012 Chapter Groups]]<br /> <br /> == Chapter Study Guides ==<br /> Put a link to the study guide you create for your chapter here. &lt;br&gt;<br /> * [[Chapter 2 Study Guide]]<br /> * [[Chapter 3 Study Guide]]<br /> * [[Chapter 4 Study Guide]]<br /> * [[Chapter 5 Study Guide]]<br /> * [[Chapter 6 Study Guide]]<br /> * [[Chapter 7 Study Guide]]<br /> * [[Chapter 8 Study Guide]]<br /> <br /> == Resources ==<br /> * [[Writing Moodle Questions]]<br /> * [[Editing Moodle Questions]]<br /> <br /> === Software ===<br /> * [http://www.virtualbox.org Virtualbox]<br /> ** [[VirtualBox Startup Script]]<br /> <br /> ==== Major Linux Distributions ====<br /> * [http://www.debian.org Debian]<br /> ** [http://www.ubuntu.com Ubuntu]<br /> * [http://www.redhat.com Redhat Enterprise Linux (RHEL)]<br /> ** [http://centos.org CentOS]<br /> ** [http://fedoraproject.org Fedora]<br /> *** Old versions of Fedora are difficult to find on the site the version that the book uses is [http://mirror.rit.edu/fedora/linux/releases/13/Fedora/i386/iso/Fedora-13-i386-DVD.iso Fedora Core 13]<br /> * [http://www.gentoo.org Gentoo]<br /> * [http://www.opensuse.org OpenSUSE (Novell)]<br /> <br /> === General Help ===<br /> ==== Online Linux Tutuorials ====<br /> * [http://www.linux.org/lessons/beginner Beginning Linux from Linux.org]<br /> * [https://help.ubuntu.com/community/PostfixBasicSetupHowto Postfix Basic Setup]<br /> * [http://lartc.org Linux Advanced Routing &amp; Traffic Control (Advanced Networking)]<br /> <br /> === Command Guides ===<br /> * [http://vic.gedris.org/Manual-ShellIntro/1.2/ShellIntro.pdf Inroduction to basic BASH shell commands]<br /> * [http://www.digilife.be/quickreferences/QRC/The%20One%20Page%20Linux%20Manual.pdf The One Page Linux Manual]<br /> <br /> === Specific Topic Help ===<br /> ==== GRUB2 ====<br /> * [https://help.ubuntu.com/community/Grub2 Ubuntu Community Documentation - GRUB2]<br /> * [http://www.dedoimedo.com/computers/grub-2.html GRUB2 Bootloader Full Tutorial]<br /> * [http://ubuntuforums.org/showthread.php?t=1195275 The GRUB2 Guide]<br /> <br /> ==== Runlevels ====<br /> * [http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-lpic1-v3-101-3/?ca=drs- IBM Learn Linux, 101: Runlevels, shutdown, and reboot]<br /> * [http://www.linux.com/news/enterprise/systems-management/8116-an-introduction-to-services-runlevels-and-rcd-scripts An introduction to services, runlevels, and rc.d scripts]<br /> <br /> ==== Partitioning, Formatting and Mounting====<br /> * [http://tldp.org/HOWTO/Partition/ Linux Partition HOWTO]<br /> * [http://docs.redhat.com/docs/en-US/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux/4/html/Introduction_To_System_Administration/s2-storage-fs-mounting.html RedHat Documentation Mount Points]<br /> * [http://docs.fedoraproject.org/en-US/Fedora/15/html/Installation_Guide/ch-partitions-x86.html Fedora Documentation: An Introduction to Disk Partitions]<br /> <br /> ==== SSH ====<br /> * [http://macnugget.org/projects/publickeys/ David McNett: using ssh public key authentication]<br /> * [https://help.ubuntu.com/community/SSH/OpenSSH/Keys Ubuntu SSH Keys Documentation]<br /> * [http://www.linuxtutorialblog.com/post/ssh-and-scp-howto-tips-tricks Linux Tutorial Blog: SSH and SCP: Howto, tips &amp; tricks]<br /> <br /> ==== Network Configuration ====<br /> * [http://www.debian-administration.org/articles/254 Debian-style Network Configuration] (Ubuntu Server uses the same style)<br /> * [http://docs.fedoraproject.org/en-US/Fedora/15/html/Deployment_Guide/s1-networkscripts-interfaces.html Fedora Nekwork Interface Configuration Files] <br /> <br /> ==== Regular Expressions, Grep and SED ====<br /> * [http://www.zytrax.com/tech/web/regex.htm Regular Expressions - A Simple User Guide]<br /> * [http://linuxreviews.org/beginner/tao_of_regular_expressions Tao of Regular Expressions]<br /> <br /> =Archived Course Materials=<br /> == General Course Information ==<br /> * [[Franske CNT-2311 Labs|Lab List]]<br /> * [[Franske CNT-2311 SU11 Labs|Summer 2011 Lab List]]<br /> <br /> == Chapter Project Notes ==<br /> [[CNT-2311-Chapter 2 Notes]] &lt;br&gt;<br /> [[CNT-2311-Chapter 3 Notes]] &lt;br&gt;<br /> [[CNT-2311-Chapter 4 Notes]] &lt;br&gt;<br /> [[CNT-2311-Chapter 5 Notes]] &lt;br&gt;<br /> [[CNT-2311-Chapter 7 Notes]] &lt;br&gt;<br /> [[CNT-2311-Chapter 8 Notes]] &lt;br&gt;<br /> [[CNT-2311-Chapter 9 Notes]] &lt;br&gt;<br /> [[CNT-2311-Chapter 10 Notes]] &lt;br&gt;<br /> <br /> '''<br /> [http://wiki.ihcnt.net/w/Chapter_21_%26_24 CNT-2311-Chapter 21 &amp; 24 Notes]'''<br /> * [[Linux SSH and Samba Notes]]<br /> * [[Linux Job Management Notes]]<br /> <br /> == Projects ==<br /> <br /> * [[Dual Booting Ubuntu and Windows 7]]<br /> * [[GUID Partiton Table]]<br /> * [[Linux VLAN Trunking]]<br /> * [[Installing Webmin]]<br /> * [[Nat Masquerading and Firewall]]<br /> * [[Control Web Access With Squid]]<br /> * [[Installing MyBB Forum]]<br /> * [[openvpn]]<br /> * [[Zoneminder]]<br /> * [[Understanding Linux Permission Sets]]<br /> * [[Franske CNT-2311 SP10 Commands|Spring 2010 Commands by Session]]<br /> * [[Converting VMWare .vmdk To VirtualBox .vdi Using Qemu+ and VBoxManage]]<br /> * [[Linux command guide]]<br /> * [[Windows File Sharing and Printer Sharing with SAMBA]]<br /> * [[How to Setup NAT]]<br /> * [[Linux-command-list]]</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=Chapter_8_Study_Guide&diff=5351 2012-03-16T03:30:13Z

<p>Klae0010: Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows</p> <hr /> <div>'''Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows''' <br /> ----<br /> <br /> <br /> == Boot Process== <br /> *Power on <br /> *System initializes<br /> *BIOS performs POST (power-on self test)<br /> *BIOS checks configuration and checks for boot devices and an OS to execute<br /> ** ''Typically floppy disks, CDs, DVDs, and USB devices are checked as they can contain installation media for an OS.'' <br /> ** ''If an OS isn’t found, the BIOS will check the MBR/GPT on the first HD.'' <br /> ** ''MBR/GPT may point to the partition where the boot loader found. If this is the case then the partition where the boot loader is found is called the active partition.'' <br /> <br /> ::: '''''See page 347 of the book for the flowchart of the boot process'''''<br /> <br /> :: ''Boot loader – main purpose is to load the OS kernel into memory.'' <br /> ::: '''NOTE:''' ''There can only be one active partition per HD.'' <br /> *Regardless of whether the boot loader is loaded from the MBR/GPT or the active partition the rest of the boot process continues as normal. Which is.. The kernel is executed and loaded into memory. <br /> *After loading the kernel, the boot loader becomes inactive. <br /> *Kernel continues by loading daemons into memory<br /> *Daemons are a system process which performs tasks such as printing scheduling, and OS maintenance. <br /> **The first daemon process is called the initialize (init) daemon. It’s responsible for loading all the other daemons on the system required to bring the system to a usable state where users can interact with it.<br /> <br /> == Boot Loaders==<br /> <br /> :As mentioned, the primary task of boot loaders is to load the OS kernel into memory. They do secondary tasks as well. This includes passing info the kernel during system startup and booting other OS’s which may be on the HD.<br /> &lt;br /&gt;<br /> ::Using a boot loader to boot one of several OS’s is known as '''dual booting'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === GRUB===<br /> : The most common and only boot loader supported by Fedora 13.<br /> :3 Stages<br /> ::Stage 1 : Generally resides in MBR/GPT and points to Stage 1.5<br /> ::Stages 1.5 : Resides in the /boot/grub directory and loads the file support and loads Stage 2<br /> ::Stage 2 : Also, reside in the /boot/grub directory. This part actually performs the boot loader operations and displayed the graphic boot loader screen. <br /> <br /> ::: This can be configured by editing the config file found at '''(/boot/grub/grub.conf)'''.<br /> ::: This is read by Stage 2, which is located on the partition called GRUB root partition.<br /> ::: To be able to read the info in '''boot/grub/grub.conf''' you must first understand how GRUB refers to partitions on HDs. <br /> : The format used is : ('''hd&lt;drive#&gt;,&lt;partition#&gt;''')<br /> :Examples. <br /> ::'' (hd0,0)'' = 1st HD , 1st Partition<br /> ::''(hd0,1)'' = 1st HD , 2nd Partition<br /> ::''(hd1,2)'' = 2st HD , 3st Partition<br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command :<br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda<br /> <br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command line: <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda <br /> :You can also use : <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda1<br /> : This is used to install GRUB Stage 1 to the front of the 1st primary part of the HD. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === LILO===<br /> <br /> :This is the traditional boot loader for Linux.<br /> :: No longer supported. <br /> :: Often found on distros which require a smaller boot loader, as well as legacy distros. <br /> :Can reside on the first sector of an active Linux partition, as with GRUB can be found in the MBR/GPT of the HD. When this is the case, when the computer completes the POST and locates LILO, a LILO boot : prompt appears. <br /> :Hitting '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' will display a list of OSs to boot. <br /> <br /> ::: A list of common '''/etc/lilo.conf''' keywords used to edit that file can be found on on page 353 of your book.<br /> <br /> :As robust as LILO is from time to time you may encounter a problem during loading. When this happens you’ll get an error code representing the problem. <br /> <br /> :::A list of commmon LILO error messages can be found on page 354 of your book. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === Dual Booting Linux===<br /> <br /> :Dual booting is the ability to boot to one of several different Oss which may be available on your computer. Basically the ability to boot a Linux system on the same computer you might also want to use to boot Win 7..or XP. <br /> <br /> ::You can dual boot using either GRUB or LILO.<br /> <br /> ::The recommended procedure to install the other OS(s) prior to installing Linux.<br /> <br /> ::The reason behind this is that Linux will detect the other OS(s) and place the appropriate entry into the boot loader config file.<br /> <br /> :LILO cannot boot load the Window kernel directly. <br /> ::It needs the ''other='' ''''keyword'''' in the '''/etc/lilo.conf''' file to tell it where to find the boot loader for Windows. <br /> <br /> :By adding ''optional'' this prevents the GRUB boot loader from looking for a Linux kernel. This is also followed by the label keyword which just IDs the OS being loaded should you his the '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' key at the LILO prompt. <br /> <br /> '''Alternate way to Dual Boot'''<br /> :You can use a Windows Boot Loader (WBL) the same way you can use a Linux Boot Loader. <br /> <br /> :As it’s not designed to boot the Linux kernel, you need to go into the WBL and modify some some components <br /> <br /> :This can be a bit involved so easier to just install Linux after any other OSs you may also want to Dual Boot. <br /> :Page 358 details what you would need to do if this is how you want to dual boot. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Linux Initialization==<br /> <br /> :After the boot loader loads the Linux OS kernel into memory, the kernel resumes control and executes the first daemon, called ''init'', on the system.<br /> <br /> :: Remember: ''A daemon is a Linux system process that provides a certain service.'' <br /> <br /> :The init daemon uses configuration file, ''/etc/initab'' (short for “init table”) to determine the number of daemons that needs to be loaded on the system.<br /> <br /> :The init daemon is responsible for uploading daemons that are loaded into memory when the system is halted or rebooted.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runlevels===<br /> <br /> :The init daemon often has to manage several daemons at once.<br /> <br /> :Each category is categorized into Runlevels.<br /> <br /> :What is a runlevel? A runlevel defines the number and type of daemons that are loaded into memory and executed by the kernel on a particular system.<br /> <br /> :They are seven standard runlevels:<br /> :: '''0''' ... ''Transitional, Shuts down the system.'' <br /> :::''Should completely power down the system.''<br /> :: '''1''', '''s''', or '''S''' ... ''Single user mode.''<br /> :::''Used for low-level system maintenance impaired by normal system operation.''<br /> :: '''2''' ... ''Full muti-user mode with a graphical login.''<br /> :::''Used on Debian'' <br /> :: '''3''' ... ''Full multi-user mode with a console login.''<br /> :::''Used on Fedora, Mandriva, Red Hat, and most other distributions.'' <br /> :: '''4''' ... ''Undefined by default''<br /> :::''Used for customization''<br /> :: '''5''' ...'' Same as runlevel 3 with the addition of having X run with XDM (graphical) login.''<br /> :: '''6''' ...''Used to reboot the system.''<br /> :::''Also a transitional runlevel.''<br /> <br /> : '''To check out the current and/or previous runlevel.'''<br /> :: Type the runlevel command.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::N=nonexistent<br /> :::5= current runlevel.<br /> <br /> ::To change the runlevel from 5 to 1 type command<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 1<br /> <br /> ::If you’re in single mode and you want to change the runlevel from 1 back to 5. Type the following command.:<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 5<br /> <br /> ::The results are<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::S 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> ::Notice that the runlevel command displays the most current and most recent runlevel.<br /> :Unless you specify, the init daemon will run the default runlevel indicated in the '''/etc/inittab file'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runtime config scripts===<br /> <br /> :Scripts that run during the boot process. The purpose is to start daemons and bring the system to a useable state.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Configuring Daemon Setup===<br /> <br /> :Points to the appropriate scripts within the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. <br /> <br /> :Most Daemon scripts accept the arguments '''start, stop,''' and '''restart'''.<br /> <br /> :After system startup you can execute them directly from the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # ''/etc/rc.d/init.d/crond restart''<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :Or you can use the '''service command''' to start, stop or restart any daemons listed in the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. To restart the crond daemon type this.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # service cond restart<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To view and modify daemons that are started in each runlevel, you can use the '''chkconfig''' command.<br /> <br /> :The chkconfig command views and manipulates the appropriate runtime configuration files in the '''/etc/rc.d/rc*.d''' directories.<br /> <br /> :For example the following command indicates the ntpd daemon is not started in any runlevel,<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:off 4:off 5:off 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To configure the ntpd daemon to start in runlevels 3 and 5, and to verify the results, you could run the following commands.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – level 35 ntpd on'''<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:on 4:off 5:on 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> == X Windows System==<br /> :Components of the Linux GUI<br /> :Graphical Programs (X Clients)<br /> :Desktop environment<br /> :Window Manager<br /> :X Windows<br /> :Video Hardware<br /> <br /> === X Windows===<br /> :Developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1984<br /> :Maintained as Open Source Software by the X.Org Foundation<br /> :The freely available version used in may Linux distributions is called XFree86<br /> <br /> <br /> === Windows Manager and Desktop Environs===<br /> <br /> ::Window managers are used to modify the look and feel of X Windows. <br /> :: Common windows managers can be found on page 370 of your book. <br /> <br /> :'''K Desktop Environment (KDE)'''<br /> ::Released in 1996<br /> ::Uses K Window Manager (kwin) and Qt toolkit<br /> <br /> : '''GNOME'''<br /> :: Created in 1997<br /> :: Uses Metacity Window Manager and GTK+ toolkit<br /> <br /> <br /> === Starting and Stopping X Windows===<br /> <br /> :*GNOME Display Manager writes the chosen desktop environment in the Session menu to a '''.dmrc''' (display manager runtime configuration) file. '''/home/user1/.dmrc''' file<br /> <br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]# '''cat . dmrc''' <br /> :::[Desktop]<br /> :::Session=kde<br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]#_<br /> <br /> :*Root user in not allowed to log into GNOME Display Manager by default.<br /> ::'''/etc/pam.d/gdm''' and '''/etc/pam.d/gdm-password''' <br /> ::# auth required pam_succeed_if.so user !=root quiet<br /> :*GNOME Display Manager can be start manually using the gdm command<br /> <br /> <br /> == Configuring X Windows==<br /> <br /> :X.Org configuration file is /etc/X11/xorg.conf<br /> :XFree86 configuration file is /etc/X11/XF86Config <br /> :Mouse-test<br /> :System-config-keyboard command<br /> :System-config-display<br /> :Xvidtune to fine tune vertical and horizontal refresh rate.<br /> <br /> ----<br /> Information complied by Robert Klaers, LaPrice Ali, &amp; Sean Benecker<br /> <br /> == Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows ==<br /> <br /> ----<br /> == Boot Process== <br /> *Power on <br /> *System initializes<br /> *BIOS performs POST (power-on self test)<br /> *BIOS checks configuration and checks for boot devices and an OS to execute<br /> ** ''Typically floppy disks, CDs, DVDs, and USB devices are checked as they can contain installation media for an OS.'' <br /> ** ''If an OS isn’t found, the BIOS will check the MBR/GPT on the first HD.'' <br /> ** ''MBR/GPT may point to the partition where the boot loader found. If this is the case then the partition where the boot loader is found is called the active partition.'' <br /> <br /> ::: '''''See page 347 of the book for the flowchart of the boot process'''''<br /> <br /> :: ''Boot loader – main purpose is to load the OS kernel into memory.'' <br /> ::: '''NOTE:''' ''There can only be one active partition per HD.'' <br /> *Regardless of whether the boot loader is loaded from the MBR/GPT or the active partition the rest of the boot process continues as normal. Which is.. The kernel is executed and loaded into memory. <br /> *After loading the kernel, the boot loader becomes inactive. <br /> *Kernel continues by loading daemons into memory<br /> *Daemons are a system process which performs tasks such as printing scheduling, and OS maintenance. <br /> **The first daemon process is called the initialize (init) daemon. It’s responsible for loading all the other daemons on the system required to bring the system to a usable state where users can interact with it.<br /> <br /> == Boot Loaders==<br /> <br /> :As mentioned, the primary task of boot loaders is to load the OS kernel into memory. They do secondary tasks as well. This includes passing info the kernel during system startup and booting other OS’s which may be on the HD.<br /> &lt;br /&gt;<br /> ::Using a boot loader to boot one of several OS’s is known as '''dual booting'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === GRUB===<br /> : The most common and only boot loader supported by Fedora 13.<br /> :3 Stages<br /> ::Stage 1 : Generally resides in MBR/GPT and points to Stage 1.5<br /> ::Stages 1.5 : Resides in the /boot/grub directory and loads the file support and loads Stage 2<br /> ::Stage 2 : Also, reside in the /boot/grub directory. This part actually performs the boot loader operations and displayed the graphic boot loader screen. <br /> <br /> ::: This can be configured by editing the config file found at '''(/boot/grub/grub.conf)'''.<br /> ::: This is read by Stage 2, which is located on the partition called GRUB root partition.<br /> ::: To be able to read the info in '''boot/grub/grub.conf''' you must first understand how GRUB refers to partitions on HDs. <br /> : The format used is : ('''hd&lt;drive#&gt;,&lt;partition#&gt;''')<br /> :Examples. <br /> ::'' (hd0,0)'' = 1st HD , 1st Partition<br /> ::''(hd0,1)'' = 1st HD , 2nd Partition<br /> ::''(hd1,2)'' = 2st HD , 3st Partition<br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command :<br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda<br /> <br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command line: <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda <br /> :You can also use : <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda1<br /> : This is used to install GRUB Stage 1 to the front of the 1st primary part of the HD. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === LILO===<br /> <br /> :This is the traditional boot loader for Linux.<br /> :: No longer supported. <br /> :: Often found on distros which require a smaller boot loader, as well as legacy distros. <br /> :Can reside on the first sector of an active Linux partition, as with GRUB can be found in the MBR/GPT of the HD. When this is the case, when the computer completes the POST and locates LILO, a LILO boot : prompt appears. <br /> :Hitting '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' will display a list of OSs to boot. <br /> <br /> ::: A list of common '''/etc/lilo.conf''' keywords used to edit that file can be found on on page 353 of your book.<br /> <br /> :As robust as LILO is from time to time you may encounter a problem during loading. When this happens you’ll get an error code representing the problem. <br /> <br /> :::A list of commmon LILO error messages can be found on page 354 of your book. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === Dual Booting Linux===<br /> <br /> :Dual booting is the ability to boot to one of several different Oss which may be available on your computer. Basically the ability to boot a Linux system on the same computer you might also want to use to boot Win 7..or XP. <br /> <br /> ::You can dual boot using either GRUB or LILO.<br /> <br /> ::The recommended procedure to install the other OS(s) prior to installing Linux.<br /> <br /> ::The reason behind this is that Linux will detect the other OS(s) and place the appropriate entry into the boot loader config file.<br /> <br /> :LILO cannot boot load the Window kernel directly. <br /> ::It needs the ''other='' ''''keyword'''' in the '''/etc/lilo.conf''' file to tell it where to find the boot loader for Windows. <br /> <br /> :By adding ''optional'' this prevents the GRUB boot loader from looking for a Linux kernel. This is also followed by the label keyword which just IDs the OS being loaded should you his the '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' key at the LILO prompt. <br /> <br /> '''Alternate way to Dual Boot'''<br /> :You can use a Windows Boot Loader (WBL) the same way you can use a Linux Boot Loader. <br /> <br /> :As it’s not designed to boot the Linux kernel, you need to go into the WBL and modify some some components <br /> <br /> :This can be a bit involved so easier to just install Linux after any other OSs you may also want to Dual Boot. <br /> :Page 358 details what you would need to do if this is how you want to dual boot. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Linux Initialization==<br /> <br /> :After the boot loader loads the Linux OS kernel into memory, the kernel resumes control and executes the first daemon, called ''init'', on the system.<br /> <br /> :: Remember: ''A daemon is a Linux system process that provides a certain service.'' <br /> <br /> :The init daemon uses configuration file, ''/etc/initab'' (short for “init table”) to determine the number of daemons that needs to be loaded on the system.<br /> <br /> :The init daemon is responsible for uploading daemons that are loaded into memory when the system is halted or rebooted.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runlevels===<br /> <br /> :The init daemon often has to manage several daemons at once.<br /> <br /> :Each category is categorized into Runlevels.<br /> <br /> :What is a runlevel? A runlevel defines the number and type of daemons that are loaded into memory and executed by the kernel on a particular system.<br /> <br /> :They are seven standard runlevels:<br /> :: '''0''' ... ''Transitional, Shuts down the system.'' <br /> :::''Should completely power down the system.''<br /> :: '''1''', '''s''', or '''S''' ... ''Single user mode.''<br /> :::''Used for low-level system maintenance impaired by normal system operation.''<br /> :: '''2''' ... ''Full muti-user mode with a graphical login.''<br /> :::''Used on Debian'' <br /> :: '''3''' ... ''Full multi-user mode with a console login.''<br /> :::''Used on Fedora, Mandriva, Red Hat, and most other distributions.'' <br /> :: '''4''' ... ''Undefined by default''<br /> :::''Used for customization''<br /> :: '''5''' ...'' Same as runlevel 3 with the addition of having X run with XDM (graphical) login.''<br /> :: '''6''' ...''Used to reboot the system.''<br /> :::''Also a transitional runlevel.''<br /> <br /> : '''To check out the current and/or previous runlevel.'''<br /> :: Type the runlevel command.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::N=nonexistent<br /> :::5= current runlevel.<br /> <br /> ::To change the runlevel from 5 to 1 type command<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 1<br /> <br /> ::If you’re in single mode and you want to change the runlevel from 1 back to 5. Type the following command.:<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 5<br /> <br /> ::The results are<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::S 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> ::Notice that the runlevel command displays the most current and most recent runlevel.<br /> :Unless you specify, the init daemon will run the default runlevel indicated in the '''/etc/inittab file'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runtime config scripts===<br /> <br /> :Scripts that run during the boot process. The purpose is to start daemons and bring the system to a useable state.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Configuring Daemon Setup===<br /> <br /> :Points to the appropriate scripts within the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. <br /> <br /> :Most Daemon scripts accept the arguments '''start, stop,''' and '''restart'''.<br /> <br /> :After system startup you can execute them directly from the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # ''/etc/rc.d/init.d/crond restart''<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :Or you can use the '''service command''' to start, stop or restart any daemons listed in the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. To restart the crond daemon type this.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # service cond restart<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To view and modify daemons that are started in each runlevel, you can use the '''chkconfig''' command.<br /> <br /> :The chkconfig command views and manipulates the appropriate runtime configuration files in the '''/etc/rc.d/rc*.d''' directories.<br /> <br /> :For example the following command indicates the ntpd daemon is not started in any runlevel,<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:off 4:off 5:off 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To configure the ntpd daemon to start in runlevels 3 and 5, and to verify the results, you could run the following commands.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – level 35 ntpd on'''<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:on 4:off 5:on 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> == X Windows System==<br /> :Components of the Linux GUI<br /> :Graphical Programs (X Clients)<br /> :Desktop environment<br /> :Window Manager<br /> :X Windows<br /> :Video Hardware<br /> <br /> === X Windows===<br /> :Developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1984<br /> :Maintained as Open Source Software by the X.Org Foundation<br /> :The freely available version used in may Linux distributions is called XFree86<br /> <br /> <br /> === Windows Manager and Desktop Environs===<br /> <br /> ::Window managers are used to modify the look and feel of X Windows. <br /> :: Common windows managers can be found on page 370 of your book. <br /> <br /> :'''K Desktop Environment (KDE)'''<br /> ::Released in 1996<br /> ::Uses K Window Manager (kwin) and Qt toolkit<br /> <br /> : '''GNOME'''<br /> :: Created in 1997<br /> :: Uses Metacity Window Manager and GTK+ toolkit<br /> <br /> <br /> === Starting and Stopping X Windows===<br /> <br /> :*GNOME Display Manager writes the chosen desktop environment in the Session menu to a '''.dmrc''' (display manager runtime configuration) file. '''/home/user1/.dmrc''' file<br /> <br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]# '''cat . dmrc''' <br /> :::[Desktop]<br /> :::Session=kde<br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]#_<br /> <br /> :*Root user in not allowed to log into GNOME Display Manager by default.<br /> ::'''/etc/pam.d/gdm''' and '''/etc/pam.d/gdm-password''' <br /> ::# auth required pam_succeed_if.so user !=root quiet<br /> :*GNOME Display Manager can be start manually using the gdm command<br /> <br /> <br /> == Configuring X Windows==<br /> <br /> :X.Org configuration file is /etc/X11/xorg.conf<br /> :XFree86 configuration file is /etc/X11/XF86Config <br /> :Mouse-test<br /> :System-config-keyboard command<br /> :System-config-display<br /> :Xvidtune to fine tune vertical and horizontal refresh rate.<br /> <br /> ----<br /> Information complied by Robert Klaers, LaPrice Ali, &amp; Sean Benecker</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=Chapter_8_Study_Guide&diff=5350 2012-03-16T03:26:23Z

<p>Klae0010: Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows</p> <hr /> <div>----<br /> <br /> == Boot Process== <br /> *Power on <br /> *System initializes<br /> *BIOS performs POST (power-on self test)<br /> *BIOS checks configuration and checks for boot devices and an OS to execute<br /> ** ''Typically floppy disks, CDs, DVDs, and USB devices are checked as they can contain installation media for an OS.'' <br /> ** ''If an OS isn’t found, the BIOS will check the MBR/GPT on the first HD.'' <br /> ** ''MBR/GPT may point to the partition where the boot loader found. If this is the case then the partition where the boot loader is found is called the active partition.'' <br /> <br /> ::: '''''See page 347 of the book for the flowchart of the boot process'''''<br /> <br /> :: ''Boot loader – main purpose is to load the OS kernel into memory.'' <br /> ::: '''NOTE:''' ''There can only be one active partition per HD.'' <br /> *Regardless of whether the boot loader is loaded from the MBR/GPT or the active partition the rest of the boot process continues as normal. Which is.. The kernel is executed and loaded into memory. <br /> *After loading the kernel, the boot loader becomes inactive. <br /> *Kernel continues by loading daemons into memory<br /> *Daemons are a system process which performs tasks such as printing scheduling, and OS maintenance. <br /> **The first daemon process is called the initialize (init) daemon. It’s responsible for loading all the other daemons on the system required to bring the system to a usable state where users can interact with it.<br /> <br /> == Boot Loaders==<br /> <br /> :As mentioned, the primary task of boot loaders is to load the OS kernel into memory. They do secondary tasks as well. This includes passing info the kernel during system startup and booting other OS’s which may be on the HD.<br /> &lt;br /&gt;<br /> ::Using a boot loader to boot one of several OS’s is known as '''dual booting'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === GRUB===<br /> : The most common and only boot loader supported by Fedora 13.<br /> :3 Stages<br /> ::Stage 1 : Generally resides in MBR/GPT and points to Stage 1.5<br /> ::Stages 1.5 : Resides in the /boot/grub directory and loads the file support and loads Stage 2<br /> ::Stage 2 : Also, reside in the /boot/grub directory. This part actually performs the boot loader operations and displayed the graphic boot loader screen. <br /> <br /> ::: This can be configured by editing the config file found at '''(/boot/grub/grub.conf)'''.<br /> ::: This is read by Stage 2, which is located on the partition called GRUB root partition.<br /> ::: To be able to read the info in '''boot/grub/grub.conf''' you must first understand how GRUB refers to partitions on HDs. <br /> : The format used is : ('''hd&lt;drive#&gt;,&lt;partition#&gt;''')<br /> :Examples. <br /> ::'' (hd0,0)'' = 1st HD , 1st Partition<br /> ::''(hd0,1)'' = 1st HD , 2nd Partition<br /> ::''(hd1,2)'' = 2st HD , 3st Partition<br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command :<br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda<br /> <br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command line: <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda <br /> :You can also use : <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda1<br /> : This is used to install GRUB Stage 1 to the front of the 1st primary part of the HD. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === LILO===<br /> <br /> :This is the traditional boot loader for Linux.<br /> :: No longer supported. <br /> :: Often found on distros which require a smaller boot loader, as well as legacy distros. <br /> :Can reside on the first sector of an active Linux partition, as with GRUB can be found in the MBR/GPT of the HD. When this is the case, when the computer completes the POST and locates LILO, a LILO boot : prompt appears. <br /> :Hitting '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' will display a list of OSs to boot. <br /> <br /> ::: A list of common '''/etc/lilo.conf''' keywords used to edit that file can be found on on page 353 of your book.<br /> <br /> :As robust as LILO is from time to time you may encounter a problem during loading. When this happens you’ll get an error code representing the problem. <br /> <br /> :::A list of commmon LILO error messages can be found on page 354 of your book. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === Dual Booting Linux===<br /> <br /> :Dual booting is the ability to boot to one of several different Oss which may be available on your computer. Basically the ability to boot a Linux system on the same computer you might also want to use to boot Win 7..or XP. <br /> <br /> ::You can dual boot using either GRUB or LILO.<br /> <br /> ::The recommended procedure to install the other OS(s) prior to installing Linux.<br /> <br /> ::The reason behind this is that Linux will detect the other OS(s) and place the appropriate entry into the boot loader config file.<br /> <br /> :LILO cannot boot load the Window kernel directly. <br /> ::It needs the ''other='' ''''keyword'''' in the '''/etc/lilo.conf''' file to tell it where to find the boot loader for Windows. <br /> <br /> :By adding ''optional'' this prevents the GRUB boot loader from looking for a Linux kernel. This is also followed by the label keyword which just IDs the OS being loaded should you his the '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' key at the LILO prompt. <br /> <br /> '''Alternate way to Dual Boot'''<br /> :You can use a Windows Boot Loader (WBL) the same way you can use a Linux Boot Loader. <br /> <br /> :As it’s not designed to boot the Linux kernel, you need to go into the WBL and modify some some components <br /> <br /> :This can be a bit involved so easier to just install Linux after any other OSs you may also want to Dual Boot. <br /> :Page 358 details what you would need to do if this is how you want to dual boot. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Linux Initialization==<br /> <br /> :After the boot loader loads the Linux OS kernel into memory, the kernel resumes control and executes the first daemon, called ''init'', on the system.<br /> <br /> :: Remember: ''A daemon is a Linux system process that provides a certain service.'' <br /> <br /> :The init daemon uses configuration file, ''/etc/initab'' (short for “init table”) to determine the number of daemons that needs to be loaded on the system.<br /> <br /> :The init daemon is responsible for uploading daemons that are loaded into memory when the system is halted or rebooted.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runlevels===<br /> <br /> :The init daemon often has to manage several daemons at once.<br /> <br /> :Each category is categorized into Runlevels.<br /> <br /> :What is a runlevel? A runlevel defines the number and type of daemons that are loaded into memory and executed by the kernel on a particular system.<br /> <br /> :They are seven standard runlevels:<br /> :: '''0''' ... ''Transitional, Shuts down the system.'' <br /> :::''Should completely power down the system.''<br /> :: '''1''', '''s''', or '''S''' ... ''Single user mode.''<br /> :::''Used for low-level system maintenance impaired by normal system operation.''<br /> :: '''2''' ... ''Full muti-user mode with a graphical login.''<br /> :::''Used on Debian'' <br /> :: '''3''' ... ''Full multi-user mode with a console login.''<br /> :::''Used on Fedora, Mandriva, Red Hat, and most other distributions.'' <br /> :: '''4''' ... ''Undefined by default''<br /> :::''Used for customization''<br /> :: '''5''' ...'' Same as runlevel 3 with the addition of having X run with XDM (graphical) login.''<br /> :: '''6''' ...''Used to reboot the system.''<br /> :::''Also a transitional runlevel.''<br /> <br /> : '''To check out the current and/or previous runlevel.'''<br /> :: Type the runlevel command.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::N=nonexistent<br /> :::5= current runlevel.<br /> <br /> ::To change the runlevel from 5 to 1 type command<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 1<br /> <br /> ::If you’re in single mode and you want to change the runlevel from 1 back to 5. Type the following command.:<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 5<br /> <br /> ::The results are<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::S 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> ::Notice that the runlevel command displays the most current and most recent runlevel.<br /> :Unless you specify, the init daemon will run the default runlevel indicated in the '''/etc/inittab file'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runtime config scripts===<br /> <br /> :Scripts that run during the boot process. The purpose is to start daemons and bring the system to a useable state.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Configuring Daemon Setup===<br /> <br /> :Points to the appropriate scripts within the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. <br /> <br /> :Most Daemon scripts accept the arguments '''start, stop,''' and '''restart'''.<br /> <br /> :After system startup you can execute them directly from the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # ''/etc/rc.d/init.d/crond restart''<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :Or you can use the '''service command''' to start, stop or restart any daemons listed in the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. To restart the crond daemon type this.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # service cond restart<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To view and modify daemons that are started in each runlevel, you can use the '''chkconfig''' command.<br /> <br /> :The chkconfig command views and manipulates the appropriate runtime configuration files in the '''/etc/rc.d/rc*.d''' directories.<br /> <br /> :For example the following command indicates the ntpd daemon is not started in any runlevel,<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:off 4:off 5:off 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To configure the ntpd daemon to start in runlevels 3 and 5, and to verify the results, you could run the following commands.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – level 35 ntpd on'''<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:on 4:off 5:on 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> == X Windows System==<br /> :Components of the Linux GUI<br /> :Graphical Programs (X Clients)<br /> :Desktop environment<br /> :Window Manager<br /> :X Windows<br /> :Video Hardware<br /> <br /> === X Windows===<br /> :Developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1984<br /> :Maintained as Open Source Software by the X.Org Foundation<br /> :The freely available version used in may Linux distributions is called XFree86<br /> <br /> <br /> === Windows Manager and Desktop Environs===<br /> <br /> ::Window managers are used to modify the look and feel of X Windows. <br /> :: Common windows managers can be found on page 370 of your book. <br /> <br /> :'''K Desktop Environment (KDE)'''<br /> ::Released in 1996<br /> ::Uses K Window Manager (kwin) and Qt toolkit<br /> <br /> : '''GNOME'''<br /> :: Created in 1997<br /> :: Uses Metacity Window Manager and GTK+ toolkit<br /> <br /> <br /> === Starting and Stopping X Windows===<br /> <br /> :*GNOME Display Manager writes the chosen desktop environment in the Session menu to a '''.dmrc''' (display manager runtime configuration) file. '''/home/user1/.dmrc''' file<br /> <br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]# '''cat . dmrc''' <br /> :::[Desktop]<br /> :::Session=kde<br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]#_<br /> <br /> :*Root user in not allowed to log into GNOME Display Manager by default.<br /> ::'''/etc/pam.d/gdm''' and '''/etc/pam.d/gdm-password''' <br /> ::# auth required pam_succeed_if.so user !=root quiet<br /> :*GNOME Display Manager can be start manually using the gdm command<br /> <br /> <br /> == Configuring X Windows==<br /> <br /> :X.Org configuration file is /etc/X11/xorg.conf<br /> :XFree86 configuration file is /etc/X11/XF86Config <br /> :Mouse-test<br /> :System-config-keyboard command<br /> :System-config-display<br /> :Xvidtune to fine tune vertical and horizontal refresh rate.<br /> <br /> ----<br /> Information complied by Robert Klaers, LaPrice Ali, &amp; Sean Benecker<br /> <br /> == Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows ==<br /> <br /> ----<br /> == Boot Process== <br /> *Power on <br /> *System initializes<br /> *BIOS performs POST (power-on self test)<br /> *BIOS checks configuration and checks for boot devices and an OS to execute<br /> ** ''Typically floppy disks, CDs, DVDs, and USB devices are checked as they can contain installation media for an OS.'' <br /> ** ''If an OS isn’t found, the BIOS will check the MBR/GPT on the first HD.'' <br /> ** ''MBR/GPT may point to the partition where the boot loader found. If this is the case then the partition where the boot loader is found is called the active partition.'' <br /> <br /> ::: '''''See page 347 of the book for the flowchart of the boot process'''''<br /> <br /> :: ''Boot loader – main purpose is to load the OS kernel into memory.'' <br /> ::: '''NOTE:''' ''There can only be one active partition per HD.'' <br /> *Regardless of whether the boot loader is loaded from the MBR/GPT or the active partition the rest of the boot process continues as normal. Which is.. The kernel is executed and loaded into memory. <br /> *After loading the kernel, the boot loader becomes inactive. <br /> *Kernel continues by loading daemons into memory<br /> *Daemons are a system process which performs tasks such as printing scheduling, and OS maintenance. <br /> **The first daemon process is called the initialize (init) daemon. It’s responsible for loading all the other daemons on the system required to bring the system to a usable state where users can interact with it.<br /> <br /> == Boot Loaders==<br /> <br /> :As mentioned, the primary task of boot loaders is to load the OS kernel into memory. They do secondary tasks as well. This includes passing info the kernel during system startup and booting other OS’s which may be on the HD.<br /> &lt;br /&gt;<br /> ::Using a boot loader to boot one of several OS’s is known as '''dual booting'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === GRUB===<br /> : The most common and only boot loader supported by Fedora 13.<br /> :3 Stages<br /> ::Stage 1 : Generally resides in MBR/GPT and points to Stage 1.5<br /> ::Stages 1.5 : Resides in the /boot/grub directory and loads the file support and loads Stage 2<br /> ::Stage 2 : Also, reside in the /boot/grub directory. This part actually performs the boot loader operations and displayed the graphic boot loader screen. <br /> <br /> ::: This can be configured by editing the config file found at '''(/boot/grub/grub.conf)'''.<br /> ::: This is read by Stage 2, which is located on the partition called GRUB root partition.<br /> ::: To be able to read the info in '''boot/grub/grub.conf''' you must first understand how GRUB refers to partitions on HDs. <br /> : The format used is : ('''hd&lt;drive#&gt;,&lt;partition#&gt;''')<br /> :Examples. <br /> ::'' (hd0,0)'' = 1st HD , 1st Partition<br /> ::''(hd0,1)'' = 1st HD , 2nd Partition<br /> ::''(hd1,2)'' = 2st HD , 3st Partition<br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command :<br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda<br /> <br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command line: <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda <br /> :You can also use : <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda1<br /> : This is used to install GRUB Stage 1 to the front of the 1st primary part of the HD. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === LILO===<br /> <br /> :This is the traditional boot loader for Linux.<br /> :: No longer supported. <br /> :: Often found on distros which require a smaller boot loader, as well as legacy distros. <br /> :Can reside on the first sector of an active Linux partition, as with GRUB can be found in the MBR/GPT of the HD. When this is the case, when the computer completes the POST and locates LILO, a LILO boot : prompt appears. <br /> :Hitting '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' will display a list of OSs to boot. <br /> <br /> ::: A list of common '''/etc/lilo.conf''' keywords used to edit that file can be found on on page 353 of your book.<br /> <br /> :As robust as LILO is from time to time you may encounter a problem during loading. When this happens you’ll get an error code representing the problem. <br /> <br /> :::A list of commmon LILO error messages can be found on page 354 of your book. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === Dual Booting Linux===<br /> <br /> :Dual booting is the ability to boot to one of several different Oss which may be available on your computer. Basically the ability to boot a Linux system on the same computer you might also want to use to boot Win 7..or XP. <br /> <br /> ::You can dual boot using either GRUB or LILO.<br /> <br /> ::The recommended procedure to install the other OS(s) prior to installing Linux.<br /> <br /> ::The reason behind this is that Linux will detect the other OS(s) and place the appropriate entry into the boot loader config file.<br /> <br /> :LILO cannot boot load the Window kernel directly. <br /> ::It needs the ''other='' ''''keyword'''' in the '''/etc/lilo.conf''' file to tell it where to find the boot loader for Windows. <br /> <br /> :By adding ''optional'' this prevents the GRUB boot loader from looking for a Linux kernel. This is also followed by the label keyword which just IDs the OS being loaded should you his the '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' key at the LILO prompt. <br /> <br /> '''Alternate way to Dual Boot'''<br /> :You can use a Windows Boot Loader (WBL) the same way you can use a Linux Boot Loader. <br /> <br /> :As it’s not designed to boot the Linux kernel, you need to go into the WBL and modify some some components <br /> <br /> :This can be a bit involved so easier to just install Linux after any other OSs you may also want to Dual Boot. <br /> :Page 358 details what you would need to do if this is how you want to dual boot. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Linux Initialization==<br /> <br /> :After the boot loader loads the Linux OS kernel into memory, the kernel resumes control and executes the first daemon, called ''init'', on the system.<br /> <br /> :: Remember: ''A daemon is a Linux system process that provides a certain service.'' <br /> <br /> :The init daemon uses configuration file, ''/etc/initab'' (short for “init table”) to determine the number of daemons that needs to be loaded on the system.<br /> <br /> :The init daemon is responsible for uploading daemons that are loaded into memory when the system is halted or rebooted.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runlevels===<br /> <br /> :The init daemon often has to manage several daemons at once.<br /> <br /> :Each category is categorized into Runlevels.<br /> <br /> :What is a runlevel? A runlevel defines the number and type of daemons that are loaded into memory and executed by the kernel on a particular system.<br /> <br /> :They are seven standard runlevels:<br /> :: '''0''' ... ''Transitional, Shuts down the system.'' <br /> :::''Should completely power down the system.''<br /> :: '''1''', '''s''', or '''S''' ... ''Single user mode.''<br /> :::''Used for low-level system maintenance impaired by normal system operation.''<br /> :: '''2''' ... ''Full muti-user mode with a graphical login.''<br /> :::''Used on Debian'' <br /> :: '''3''' ... ''Full multi-user mode with a console login.''<br /> :::''Used on Fedora, Mandriva, Red Hat, and most other distributions.'' <br /> :: '''4''' ... ''Undefined by default''<br /> :::''Used for customization''<br /> :: '''5''' ...'' Same as runlevel 3 with the addition of having X run with XDM (graphical) login.''<br /> :: '''6''' ...''Used to reboot the system.''<br /> :::''Also a transitional runlevel.''<br /> <br /> : '''To check out the current and/or previous runlevel.'''<br /> :: Type the runlevel command.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::N=nonexistent<br /> :::5= current runlevel.<br /> <br /> ::To change the runlevel from 5 to 1 type command<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 1<br /> <br /> ::If you’re in single mode and you want to change the runlevel from 1 back to 5. Type the following command.:<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 5<br /> <br /> ::The results are<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::S 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> ::Notice that the runlevel command displays the most current and most recent runlevel.<br /> :Unless you specify, the init daemon will run the default runlevel indicated in the '''/etc/inittab file'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runtime config scripts===<br /> <br /> :Scripts that run during the boot process. The purpose is to start daemons and bring the system to a useable state.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Configuring Daemon Setup===<br /> <br /> :Points to the appropriate scripts within the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. <br /> <br /> :Most Daemon scripts accept the arguments '''start, stop,''' and '''restart'''.<br /> <br /> :After system startup you can execute them directly from the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # ''/etc/rc.d/init.d/crond restart''<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :Or you can use the '''service command''' to start, stop or restart any daemons listed in the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. To restart the crond daemon type this.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # service cond restart<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To view and modify daemons that are started in each runlevel, you can use the '''chkconfig''' command.<br /> <br /> :The chkconfig command views and manipulates the appropriate runtime configuration files in the '''/etc/rc.d/rc*.d''' directories.<br /> <br /> :For example the following command indicates the ntpd daemon is not started in any runlevel,<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:off 4:off 5:off 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To configure the ntpd daemon to start in runlevels 3 and 5, and to verify the results, you could run the following commands.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – level 35 ntpd on'''<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:on 4:off 5:on 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> == X Windows System==<br /> :Components of the Linux GUI<br /> :Graphical Programs (X Clients)<br /> :Desktop environment<br /> :Window Manager<br /> :X Windows<br /> :Video Hardware<br /> <br /> === X Windows===<br /> :Developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1984<br /> :Maintained as Open Source Software by the X.Org Foundation<br /> :The freely available version used in may Linux distributions is called XFree86<br /> <br /> <br /> === Windows Manager and Desktop Environs===<br /> <br /> ::Window managers are used to modify the look and feel of X Windows. <br /> :: Common windows managers can be found on page 370 of your book. <br /> <br /> :'''K Desktop Environment (KDE)'''<br /> ::Released in 1996<br /> ::Uses K Window Manager (kwin) and Qt toolkit<br /> <br /> : '''GNOME'''<br /> :: Created in 1997<br /> :: Uses Metacity Window Manager and GTK+ toolkit<br /> <br /> <br /> === Starting and Stopping X Windows===<br /> <br /> :*GNOME Display Manager writes the chosen desktop environment in the Session menu to a '''.dmrc''' (display manager runtime configuration) file. '''/home/user1/.dmrc''' file<br /> <br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]# '''cat . dmrc''' <br /> :::[Desktop]<br /> :::Session=kde<br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]#_<br /> <br /> :*Root user in not allowed to log into GNOME Display Manager by default.<br /> ::'''/etc/pam.d/gdm''' and '''/etc/pam.d/gdm-password''' <br /> ::# auth required pam_succeed_if.so user !=root quiet<br /> :*GNOME Display Manager can be start manually using the gdm command<br /> <br /> <br /> == Configuring X Windows==<br /> <br /> :X.Org configuration file is /etc/X11/xorg.conf<br /> :XFree86 configuration file is /etc/X11/XF86Config <br /> :Mouse-test<br /> :System-config-keyboard command<br /> :System-config-display<br /> :Xvidtune to fine tune vertical and horizontal refresh rate.<br /> <br /> ----<br /> Information complied by Robert Klaers, LaPrice Ali, &amp; Sean Benecker</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=User_talk:Klae0010&diff=5349 2012-03-16T03:16:44Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows */ new section</p> <hr /> <div><br /> <br /> ----<br /> == ''Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows'' ==<br /> <br /> == Boot Process== <br /> *Power on <br /> *System initializes<br /> *BIOS performs POST (power-on self test)<br /> *BIOS checks configuration and checks for boot devices and an OS to execute<br /> ** ''Typically floppy disks, CDs, DVDs, and USB devices are checked as they can contain installation media for an OS.'' <br /> ** ''If an OS isn’t found, the BIOS will check the MBR/GPT on the first HD.'' <br /> ** ''MBR/GPT may point to the partition where the boot loader found. If this is the case then the partition where the boot loader is found is called the active partition.'' <br /> <br /> ::: '''''See page 347 of the book for the flowchart of the boot process'''''<br /> <br /> :: ''Boot loader – main purpose is to load the OS kernel into memory.'' <br /> ::: '''NOTE:''' ''There can only be one active partition per HD.'' <br /> *Regardless of whether the boot loader is loaded from the MBR/GPT or the active partition the rest of the boot process continues as normal. Which is.. The kernel is executed and loaded into memory. <br /> *After loading the kernel, the boot loader becomes inactive. <br /> *Kernel continues by loading daemons into memory<br /> *Daemons are a system process which performs tasks such as printing scheduling, and OS maintenance. <br /> **The first daemon process is called the initialize (init) daemon. It’s responsible for loading all the other daemons on the system required to bring the system to a usable state where users can interact with it.<br /> <br /> == Boot Loaders==<br /> <br /> :As mentioned, the primary task of boot loaders is to load the OS kernel into memory. They do secondary tasks as well. This includes passing info the kernel during system startup and booting other OS’s which may be on the HD.<br /> &lt;br /&gt;<br /> ::Using a boot loader to boot one of several OS’s is known as '''dual booting'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === GRUB===<br /> : The most common and only boot loader supported by Fedora 13.<br /> :3 Stages<br /> ::Stage 1 : Generally resides in MBR/GPT and points to Stage 1.5<br /> ::Stages 1.5 : Resides in the /boot/grub directory and loads the file support and loads Stage 2<br /> ::Stage 2 : Also, reside in the /boot/grub directory. This part actually performs the boot loader operations and displayed the graphic boot loader screen. <br /> <br /> ::: This can be configured by editing the config file found at '''(/boot/grub/grub.conf)'''.<br /> ::: This is read by Stage 2, which is located on the partition called GRUB root partition.<br /> ::: To be able to read the info in '''boot/grub/grub.conf''' you must first understand how GRUB refers to partitions on HDs. <br /> : The format used is : ('''hd&lt;drive#&gt;,&lt;partition#&gt;''')<br /> :Examples. <br /> ::'' (hd0,0)'' = 1st HD , 1st Partition<br /> ::''(hd0,1)'' = 1st HD , 2nd Partition<br /> ::''(hd1,2)'' = 2st HD , 3st Partition<br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command :<br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda<br /> <br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command line: <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda <br /> :You can also use : <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda1<br /> : This is used to install GRUB Stage 1 to the front of the 1st primary part of the HD. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === LILO===<br /> <br /> :This is the traditional boot loader for Linux.<br /> :: No longer supported. <br /> :: Often found on distros which require a smaller boot loader, as well as legacy distros. <br /> :Can reside on the first sector of an active Linux partition, as with GRUB can be found in the MBR/GPT of the HD. When this is the case, when the computer completes the POST and locates LILO, a LILO boot : prompt appears. <br /> :Hitting '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' will display a list of OSs to boot. <br /> <br /> ::: A list of common '''/etc/lilo.conf''' keywords used to edit that file can be found on on page 353 of your book.<br /> <br /> :As robust as LILO is from time to time you may encounter a problem during loading. When this happens you’ll get an error code representing the problem. <br /> <br /> :::A list of commmon LILO error messages can be found on page 354 of your book. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === Dual Booting Linux===<br /> <br /> :Dual booting is the ability to boot to one of several different Oss which may be available on your computer. Basically the ability to boot a Linux system on the same computer you might also want to use to boot Win 7..or XP. <br /> <br /> ::You can dual boot using either GRUB or LILO.<br /> <br /> ::The recommended procedure to install the other OS(s) prior to installing Linux.<br /> <br /> ::The reason behind this is that Linux will detect the other OS(s) and place the appropriate entry into the boot loader config file.<br /> <br /> :LILO cannot boot load the Window kernel directly. <br /> ::It needs the ''other='' ''''keyword'''' in the '''/etc/lilo.conf''' file to tell it where to find the boot loader for Windows. <br /> <br /> :By adding ''optional'' this prevents the GRUB boot loader from looking for a Linux kernel. This is also followed by the label keyword which just IDs the OS being loaded should you his the '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' key at the LILO prompt. <br /> <br /> '''Alternate way to Dual Boot'''<br /> :You can use a Windows Boot Loader (WBL) the same way you can use a Linux Boot Loader. <br /> <br /> :As it’s not designed to boot the Linux kernel, you need to go into the WBL and modify some some components <br /> <br /> :This can be a bit involved so easier to just install Linux after any other OSs you may also want to Dual Boot. <br /> :Page 358 details what you would need to do if this is how you want to dual boot. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Linux Initialization==<br /> <br /> :After the boot loader loads the Linux OS kernel into memory, the kernel resumes control and executes the first daemon, called ''init'', on the system.<br /> <br /> :: Remember: ''A daemon is a Linux system process that provides a certain service.'' <br /> <br /> :The init daemon uses configuration file, ''/etc/initab'' (short for “init table”) to determine the number of daemons that needs to be loaded on the system.<br /> <br /> :The init daemon is responsible for uploading daemons that are loaded into memory when the system is halted or rebooted.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runlevels===<br /> <br /> :The init daemon often has to manage several daemons at once.<br /> <br /> :Each category is categorized into Runlevels.<br /> <br /> :What is a runlevel? A runlevel defines the number and type of daemons that are loaded into memory and executed by the kernel on a particular system.<br /> <br /> :They are seven standard runlevels:<br /> :: '''0''' ... ''Transitional, Shuts down the system.'' <br /> :::''Should completely power down the system.''<br /> :: '''1''', '''s''', or '''S''' ... ''Single user mode.''<br /> :::''Used for low-level system maintenance impaired by normal system operation.''<br /> :: '''2''' ... ''Full muti-user mode with a graphical login.''<br /> :::''Used on Debian'' <br /> :: '''3''' ... ''Full multi-user mode with a console login.''<br /> :::''Used on Fedora, Mandriva, Red Hat, and most other distributions.'' <br /> :: '''4''' ... ''Undefined by default''<br /> :::''Used for customization''<br /> :: '''5''' ...'' Same as runlevel 3 with the addition of having X run with XDM (graphical) login.''<br /> :: '''6''' ...''Used to reboot the system.''<br /> :::''Also a transitional runlevel.''<br /> <br /> : '''To check out the current and/or previous runlevel.'''<br /> :: Type the runlevel command.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::N=nonexistent<br /> :::5= current runlevel.<br /> <br /> ::To change the runlevel from 5 to 1 type command<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 1<br /> <br /> ::If you’re in single mode and you want to change the runlevel from 1 back to 5. Type the following command.:<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 5<br /> <br /> ::The results are<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::S 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> ::Notice that the runlevel command displays the most current and most recent runlevel.<br /> :Unless you specify, the init daemon will run the default runlevel indicated in the '''/etc/inittab file'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runtime config scripts===<br /> <br /> :Scripts that run during the boot process. The purpose is to start daemons and bring the system to a useable state.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Configuring Daemon Setup===<br /> <br /> :Points to the appropriate scripts within the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. <br /> <br /> :Most Daemon scripts accept the arguments '''start, stop,''' and '''restart'''.<br /> <br /> :After system startup you can execute them directly from the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # ''/etc/rc.d/init.d/crond restart''<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :Or you can use the '''service command''' to start, stop or restart any daemons listed in the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. To restart the crond daemon type this.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # service cond restart<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To view and modify daemons that are started in each runlevel, you can use the '''chkconfig''' command.<br /> <br /> :The chkconfig command views and manipulates the appropriate runtime configuration files in the '''/etc/rc.d/rc*.d''' directories.<br /> <br /> :For example the following command indicates the ntpd daemon is not started in any runlevel,<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:off 4:off 5:off 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To configure the ntpd daemon to start in runlevels 3 and 5, and to verify the results, you could run the following commands.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – level 35 ntpd on'''<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:on 4:off 5:on 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> == X Windows System==<br /> :Components of the Linux GUI<br /> :Graphical Programs (X Clients)<br /> :Desktop environment<br /> :Window Manager<br /> :X Windows<br /> :Video Hardware<br /> <br /> === X Windows===<br /> :Developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1984<br /> :Maintained as Open Source Software by the X.Org Foundation<br /> :The freely available version used in may Linux distributions is called XFree86<br /> <br /> <br /> === Windows Manager and Desktop Environs===<br /> <br /> ::Window managers are used to modify the look and feel of X Windows. <br /> :: Common windows managers can be found on page 370 of your book. <br /> <br /> :'''K Desktop Environment (KDE)'''<br /> ::Released in 1996<br /> ::Uses K Window Manager (kwin) and Qt toolkit<br /> <br /> : '''GNOME'''<br /> :: Created in 1997<br /> :: Uses Metacity Window Manager and GTK+ toolkit<br /> <br /> <br /> === Starting and Stopping X Windows===<br /> <br /> :*GNOME Display Manager writes the chosen desktop environment in the Session menu to a '''.dmrc''' (display manager runtime configuration) file. '''/home/user1/.dmrc''' file<br /> <br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]# '''cat . dmrc''' <br /> :::[Desktop]<br /> :::Session=kde<br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]#_<br /> <br /> :*Root user in not allowed to log into GNOME Display Manager by default.<br /> ::'''/etc/pam.d/gdm''' and '''/etc/pam.d/gdm-password''' <br /> ::# auth required pam_succeed_if.so user !=root quiet<br /> :*GNOME Display Manager can be start manually using the gdm command<br /> <br /> <br /> == Configuring X Windows==<br /> <br /> :X.Org configuration file is /etc/X11/xorg.conf<br /> :XFree86 configuration file is /etc/X11/XF86Config <br /> :Mouse-test<br /> :System-config-keyboard command<br /> :System-config-display<br /> :Xvidtune to fine tune vertical and horizontal refresh rate.<br /> <br /> ----<br /> Information complied by Robert Klaers, LaPrice Ali, &amp; Sean Benecker<br /> <br /> == Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows ==<br /> <br /> ----<br /> == Boot Process== <br /> *Power on <br /> *System initializes<br /> *BIOS performs POST (power-on self test)<br /> *BIOS checks configuration and checks for boot devices and an OS to execute<br /> ** ''Typically floppy disks, CDs, DVDs, and USB devices are checked as they can contain installation media for an OS.'' <br /> ** ''If an OS isn’t found, the BIOS will check the MBR/GPT on the first HD.'' <br /> ** ''MBR/GPT may point to the partition where the boot loader found. If this is the case then the partition where the boot loader is found is called the active partition.'' <br /> <br /> ::: '''''See page 347 of the book for the flowchart of the boot process'''''<br /> <br /> :: ''Boot loader – main purpose is to load the OS kernel into memory.'' <br /> ::: '''NOTE:''' ''There can only be one active partition per HD.'' <br /> *Regardless of whether the boot loader is loaded from the MBR/GPT or the active partition the rest of the boot process continues as normal. Which is.. The kernel is executed and loaded into memory. <br /> *After loading the kernel, the boot loader becomes inactive. <br /> *Kernel continues by loading daemons into memory<br /> *Daemons are a system process which performs tasks such as printing scheduling, and OS maintenance. <br /> **The first daemon process is called the initialize (init) daemon. It’s responsible for loading all the other daemons on the system required to bring the system to a usable state where users can interact with it.<br /> <br /> == Boot Loaders==<br /> <br /> :As mentioned, the primary task of boot loaders is to load the OS kernel into memory. They do secondary tasks as well. This includes passing info the kernel during system startup and booting other OS’s which may be on the HD.<br /> &lt;br /&gt;<br /> ::Using a boot loader to boot one of several OS’s is known as '''dual booting'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === GRUB===<br /> : The most common and only boot loader supported by Fedora 13.<br /> :3 Stages<br /> ::Stage 1 : Generally resides in MBR/GPT and points to Stage 1.5<br /> ::Stages 1.5 : Resides in the /boot/grub directory and loads the file support and loads Stage 2<br /> ::Stage 2 : Also, reside in the /boot/grub directory. This part actually performs the boot loader operations and displayed the graphic boot loader screen. <br /> <br /> ::: This can be configured by editing the config file found at '''(/boot/grub/grub.conf)'''.<br /> ::: This is read by Stage 2, which is located on the partition called GRUB root partition.<br /> ::: To be able to read the info in '''boot/grub/grub.conf''' you must first understand how GRUB refers to partitions on HDs. <br /> : The format used is : ('''hd&lt;drive#&gt;,&lt;partition#&gt;''')<br /> :Examples. <br /> ::'' (hd0,0)'' = 1st HD , 1st Partition<br /> ::''(hd0,1)'' = 1st HD , 2nd Partition<br /> ::''(hd1,2)'' = 2st HD , 3st Partition<br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command :<br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda<br /> <br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command line: <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda <br /> :You can also use : <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda1<br /> : This is used to install GRUB Stage 1 to the front of the 1st primary part of the HD. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === LILO===<br /> <br /> :This is the traditional boot loader for Linux.<br /> :: No longer supported. <br /> :: Often found on distros which require a smaller boot loader, as well as legacy distros. <br /> :Can reside on the first sector of an active Linux partition, as with GRUB can be found in the MBR/GPT of the HD. When this is the case, when the computer completes the POST and locates LILO, a LILO boot : prompt appears. <br /> :Hitting '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' will display a list of OSs to boot. <br /> <br /> ::: A list of common '''/etc/lilo.conf''' keywords used to edit that file can be found on on page 353 of your book.<br /> <br /> :As robust as LILO is from time to time you may encounter a problem during loading. When this happens you’ll get an error code representing the problem. <br /> <br /> :::A list of commmon LILO error messages can be found on page 354 of your book. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === Dual Booting Linux===<br /> <br /> :Dual booting is the ability to boot to one of several different Oss which may be available on your computer. Basically the ability to boot a Linux system on the same computer you might also want to use to boot Win 7..or XP. <br /> <br /> ::You can dual boot using either GRUB or LILO.<br /> <br /> ::The recommended procedure to install the other OS(s) prior to installing Linux.<br /> <br /> ::The reason behind this is that Linux will detect the other OS(s) and place the appropriate entry into the boot loader config file.<br /> <br /> :LILO cannot boot load the Window kernel directly. <br /> ::It needs the ''other='' ''''keyword'''' in the '''/etc/lilo.conf''' file to tell it where to find the boot loader for Windows. <br /> <br /> :By adding ''optional'' this prevents the GRUB boot loader from looking for a Linux kernel. This is also followed by the label keyword which just IDs the OS being loaded should you his the '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' key at the LILO prompt. <br /> <br /> '''Alternate way to Dual Boot'''<br /> :You can use a Windows Boot Loader (WBL) the same way you can use a Linux Boot Loader. <br /> <br /> :As it’s not designed to boot the Linux kernel, you need to go into the WBL and modify some some components <br /> <br /> :This can be a bit involved so easier to just install Linux after any other OSs you may also want to Dual Boot. <br /> :Page 358 details what you would need to do if this is how you want to dual boot. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Linux Initialization==<br /> <br /> :After the boot loader loads the Linux OS kernel into memory, the kernel resumes control and executes the first daemon, called ''init'', on the system.<br /> <br /> :: Remember: ''A daemon is a Linux system process that provides a certain service.'' <br /> <br /> :The init daemon uses configuration file, ''/etc/initab'' (short for “init table”) to determine the number of daemons that needs to be loaded on the system.<br /> <br /> :The init daemon is responsible for uploading daemons that are loaded into memory when the system is halted or rebooted.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runlevels===<br /> <br /> :The init daemon often has to manage several daemons at once.<br /> <br /> :Each category is categorized into Runlevels.<br /> <br /> :What is a runlevel? A runlevel defines the number and type of daemons that are loaded into memory and executed by the kernel on a particular system.<br /> <br /> :They are seven standard runlevels:<br /> :: '''0''' ... ''Transitional, Shuts down the system.'' <br /> :::''Should completely power down the system.''<br /> :: '''1''', '''s''', or '''S''' ... ''Single user mode.''<br /> :::''Used for low-level system maintenance impaired by normal system operation.''<br /> :: '''2''' ... ''Full muti-user mode with a graphical login.''<br /> :::''Used on Debian'' <br /> :: '''3''' ... ''Full multi-user mode with a console login.''<br /> :::''Used on Fedora, Mandriva, Red Hat, and most other distributions.'' <br /> :: '''4''' ... ''Undefined by default''<br /> :::''Used for customization''<br /> :: '''5''' ...'' Same as runlevel 3 with the addition of having X run with XDM (graphical) login.''<br /> :: '''6''' ...''Used to reboot the system.''<br /> :::''Also a transitional runlevel.''<br /> <br /> : '''To check out the current and/or previous runlevel.'''<br /> :: Type the runlevel command.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::N=nonexistent<br /> :::5= current runlevel.<br /> <br /> ::To change the runlevel from 5 to 1 type command<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 1<br /> <br /> ::If you’re in single mode and you want to change the runlevel from 1 back to 5. Type the following command.:<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 5<br /> <br /> ::The results are<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::S 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> ::Notice that the runlevel command displays the most current and most recent runlevel.<br /> :Unless you specify, the init daemon will run the default runlevel indicated in the '''/etc/inittab file'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runtime config scripts===<br /> <br /> :Scripts that run during the boot process. The purpose is to start daemons and bring the system to a useable state.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Configuring Daemon Setup===<br /> <br /> :Points to the appropriate scripts within the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. <br /> <br /> :Most Daemon scripts accept the arguments '''start, stop,''' and '''restart'''.<br /> <br /> :After system startup you can execute them directly from the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # ''/etc/rc.d/init.d/crond restart''<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :Or you can use the '''service command''' to start, stop or restart any daemons listed in the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. To restart the crond daemon type this.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # service cond restart<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To view and modify daemons that are started in each runlevel, you can use the '''chkconfig''' command.<br /> <br /> :The chkconfig command views and manipulates the appropriate runtime configuration files in the '''/etc/rc.d/rc*.d''' directories.<br /> <br /> :For example the following command indicates the ntpd daemon is not started in any runlevel,<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:off 4:off 5:off 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To configure the ntpd daemon to start in runlevels 3 and 5, and to verify the results, you could run the following commands.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – level 35 ntpd on'''<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:on 4:off 5:on 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> == X Windows System==<br /> :Components of the Linux GUI<br /> :Graphical Programs (X Clients)<br /> :Desktop environment<br /> :Window Manager<br /> :X Windows<br /> :Video Hardware<br /> <br /> === X Windows===<br /> :Developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1984<br /> :Maintained as Open Source Software by the X.Org Foundation<br /> :The freely available version used in may Linux distributions is called XFree86<br /> <br /> <br /> === Windows Manager and Desktop Environs===<br /> <br /> ::Window managers are used to modify the look and feel of X Windows. <br /> :: Common windows managers can be found on page 370 of your book. <br /> <br /> :'''K Desktop Environment (KDE)'''<br /> ::Released in 1996<br /> ::Uses K Window Manager (kwin) and Qt toolkit<br /> <br /> : '''GNOME'''<br /> :: Created in 1997<br /> :: Uses Metacity Window Manager and GTK+ toolkit<br /> <br /> <br /> === Starting and Stopping X Windows===<br /> <br /> :*GNOME Display Manager writes the chosen desktop environment in the Session menu to a '''.dmrc''' (display manager runtime configuration) file. '''/home/user1/.dmrc''' file<br /> <br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]# '''cat . dmrc''' <br /> :::[Desktop]<br /> :::Session=kde<br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]#_<br /> <br /> :*Root user in not allowed to log into GNOME Display Manager by default.<br /> ::'''/etc/pam.d/gdm''' and '''/etc/pam.d/gdm-password''' <br /> ::# auth required pam_succeed_if.so user !=root quiet<br /> :*GNOME Display Manager can be start manually using the gdm command<br /> <br /> <br /> == Configuring X Windows==<br /> <br /> :X.Org configuration file is /etc/X11/xorg.conf<br /> :XFree86 configuration file is /etc/X11/XF86Config <br /> :Mouse-test<br /> :System-config-keyboard command<br /> :System-config-display<br /> :Xvidtune to fine tune vertical and horizontal refresh rate.<br /> <br /> ----<br /> Information complied by Robert Klaers, LaPrice Ali, &amp; Sean Benecker</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=User_talk:Klae0010&diff=5348 2012-03-16T03:15:33Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows */</p> <hr /> <div><br /> <br /> ----<br /> == ''Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows'' ==<br /> <br /> == Boot Process== <br /> *Power on <br /> *System initializes<br /> *BIOS performs POST (power-on self test)<br /> *BIOS checks configuration and checks for boot devices and an OS to execute<br /> ** ''Typically floppy disks, CDs, DVDs, and USB devices are checked as they can contain installation media for an OS.'' <br /> ** ''If an OS isn’t found, the BIOS will check the MBR/GPT on the first HD.'' <br /> ** ''MBR/GPT may point to the partition where the boot loader found. If this is the case then the partition where the boot loader is found is called the active partition.'' <br /> <br /> ::: '''''See page 347 of the book for the flowchart of the boot process'''''<br /> <br /> :: ''Boot loader – main purpose is to load the OS kernel into memory.'' <br /> ::: '''NOTE:''' ''There can only be one active partition per HD.'' <br /> *Regardless of whether the boot loader is loaded from the MBR/GPT or the active partition the rest of the boot process continues as normal. Which is.. The kernel is executed and loaded into memory. <br /> *After loading the kernel, the boot loader becomes inactive. <br /> *Kernel continues by loading daemons into memory<br /> *Daemons are a system process which performs tasks such as printing scheduling, and OS maintenance. <br /> **The first daemon process is called the initialize (init) daemon. It’s responsible for loading all the other daemons on the system required to bring the system to a usable state where users can interact with it.<br /> <br /> == Boot Loaders==<br /> <br /> :As mentioned, the primary task of boot loaders is to load the OS kernel into memory. They do secondary tasks as well. This includes passing info the kernel during system startup and booting other OS’s which may be on the HD.<br /> &lt;br /&gt;<br /> ::Using a boot loader to boot one of several OS’s is known as '''dual booting'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === GRUB===<br /> : The most common and only boot loader supported by Fedora 13.<br /> :3 Stages<br /> ::Stage 1 : Generally resides in MBR/GPT and points to Stage 1.5<br /> ::Stages 1.5 : Resides in the /boot/grub directory and loads the file support and loads Stage 2<br /> ::Stage 2 : Also, reside in the /boot/grub directory. This part actually performs the boot loader operations and displayed the graphic boot loader screen. <br /> <br /> ::: This can be configured by editing the config file found at '''(/boot/grub/grub.conf)'''.<br /> ::: This is read by Stage 2, which is located on the partition called GRUB root partition.<br /> ::: To be able to read the info in '''boot/grub/grub.conf''' you must first understand how GRUB refers to partitions on HDs. <br /> : The format used is : ('''hd&lt;drive#&gt;,&lt;partition#&gt;''')<br /> :Examples. <br /> ::'' (hd0,0)'' = 1st HD , 1st Partition<br /> ::''(hd0,1)'' = 1st HD , 2nd Partition<br /> ::''(hd1,2)'' = 2st HD , 3st Partition<br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command :<br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda<br /> <br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command line: <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda <br /> :You can also use : <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda1<br /> : This is used to install GRUB Stage 1 to the front of the 1st primary part of the HD. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === LILO===<br /> <br /> :This is the traditional boot loader for Linux.<br /> :: No longer supported. <br /> :: Often found on distros which require a smaller boot loader, as well as legacy distros. <br /> :Can reside on the first sector of an active Linux partition, as with GRUB can be found in the MBR/GPT of the HD. When this is the case, when the computer completes the POST and locates LILO, a LILO boot : prompt appears. <br /> :Hitting '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' will display a list of OSs to boot. <br /> <br /> ::: A list of common '''/etc/lilo.conf''' keywords used to edit that file can be found on on page 353 of your book.<br /> <br /> :As robust as LILO is from time to time you may encounter a problem during loading. When this happens you’ll get an error code representing the problem. <br /> <br /> :::A list of commmon LILO error messages can be found on page 354 of your book. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === Dual Booting Linux===<br /> <br /> :Dual booting is the ability to boot to one of several different Oss which may be available on your computer. Basically the ability to boot a Linux system on the same computer you might also want to use to boot Win 7..or XP. <br /> <br /> ::You can dual boot using either GRUB or LILO.<br /> <br /> ::The recommended procedure to install the other OS(s) prior to installing Linux.<br /> <br /> ::The reason behind this is that Linux will detect the other OS(s) and place the appropriate entry into the boot loader config file.<br /> <br /> :LILO cannot boot load the Window kernel directly. <br /> ::It needs the ''other='' ''''keyword'''' in the '''/etc/lilo.conf''' file to tell it where to find the boot loader for Windows. <br /> <br /> :By adding ''optional'' this prevents the GRUB boot loader from looking for a Linux kernel. This is also followed by the label keyword which just IDs the OS being loaded should you his the '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' key at the LILO prompt. <br /> <br /> '''Alternate way to Dual Boot'''<br /> :You can use a Windows Boot Loader (WBL) the same way you can use a Linux Boot Loader. <br /> <br /> :As it’s not designed to boot the Linux kernel, you need to go into the WBL and modify some some components <br /> <br /> :This can be a bit involved so easier to just install Linux after any other OSs you may also want to Dual Boot. <br /> :Page 358 details what you would need to do if this is how you want to dual boot. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Linux Initialization==<br /> <br /> :After the boot loader loads the Linux OS kernel into memory, the kernel resumes control and executes the first daemon, called ''init'', on the system.<br /> <br /> :: Remember: ''A daemon is a Linux system process that provides a certain service.'' <br /> <br /> :The init daemon uses configuration file, ''/etc/initab'' (short for “init table”) to determine the number of daemons that needs to be loaded on the system.<br /> <br /> :The init daemon is responsible for uploading daemons that are loaded into memory when the system is halted or rebooted.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runlevels===<br /> <br /> :The init daemon often has to manage several daemons at once.<br /> <br /> :Each category is categorized into Runlevels.<br /> <br /> :What is a runlevel? A runlevel defines the number and type of daemons that are loaded into memory and executed by the kernel on a particular system.<br /> <br /> :They are seven standard runlevels:<br /> :: '''0''' ... ''Transitional, Shuts down the system.'' <br /> :::''Should completely power down the system.''<br /> :: '''1''', '''s''', or '''S''' ... ''Single user mode.''<br /> :::''Used for low-level system maintenance impaired by normal system operation.''<br /> :: '''2''' ... ''Full muti-user mode with a graphical login.''<br /> :::''Used on Debian'' <br /> :: '''3''' ... ''Full multi-user mode with a console login.''<br /> :::''Used on Fedora, Mandriva, Red Hat, and most other distributions.'' <br /> :: '''4''' ... ''Undefined by default''<br /> :::''Used for customization''<br /> :: '''5''' ...'' Same as runlevel 3 with the addition of having X run with XDM (graphical) login.''<br /> :: '''6''' ...''Used to reboot the system.''<br /> :::''Also a transitional runlevel.''<br /> <br /> : '''To check out the current and/or previous runlevel.'''<br /> :: Type the runlevel command.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::N=nonexistent<br /> :::5= current runlevel.<br /> <br /> ::To change the runlevel from 5 to 1 type command<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 1<br /> <br /> ::If you’re in single mode and you want to change the runlevel from 1 back to 5. Type the following command.:<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 5<br /> <br /> ::The results are<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::S 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> ::Notice that the runlevel command displays the most current and most recent runlevel.<br /> :Unless you specify, the init daemon will run the default runlevel indicated in the '''/etc/inittab file'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runtime config scripts===<br /> <br /> :Scripts that run during the boot process. The purpose is to start daemons and bring the system to a useable state.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Configuring Daemon Setup===<br /> <br /> :Points to the appropriate scripts within the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. <br /> <br /> :Most Daemon scripts accept the arguments '''start, stop,''' and '''restart'''.<br /> <br /> :After system startup you can execute them directly from the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # ''/etc/rc.d/init.d/crond restart''<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :Or you can use the '''service command''' to start, stop or restart any daemons listed in the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. To restart the crond daemon type this.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # service cond restart<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To view and modify daemons that are started in each runlevel, you can use the '''chkconfig''' command.<br /> <br /> :The chkconfig command views and manipulates the appropriate runtime configuration files in the '''/etc/rc.d/rc*.d''' directories.<br /> <br /> :For example the following command indicates the ntpd daemon is not started in any runlevel,<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:off 4:off 5:off 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To configure the ntpd daemon to start in runlevels 3 and 5, and to verify the results, you could run the following commands.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – level 35 ntpd on'''<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:on 4:off 5:on 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> == X Windows System==<br /> :Components of the Linux GUI<br /> :Graphical Programs (X Clients)<br /> :Desktop environment<br /> :Window Manager<br /> :X Windows<br /> :Video Hardware<br /> <br /> === X Windows===<br /> :Developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1984<br /> :Maintained as Open Source Software by the X.Org Foundation<br /> :The freely available version used in may Linux distributions is called XFree86<br /> <br /> <br /> === Windows Manager and Desktop Environs===<br /> <br /> ::Window managers are used to modify the look and feel of X Windows. <br /> :: Common windows managers can be found on page 370 of your book. <br /> <br /> :'''K Desktop Environment (KDE)'''<br /> ::Released in 1996<br /> ::Uses K Window Manager (kwin) and Qt toolkit<br /> <br /> : '''GNOME'''<br /> :: Created in 1997<br /> :: Uses Metacity Window Manager and GTK+ toolkit<br /> <br /> <br /> === Starting and Stopping X Windows===<br /> <br /> :*GNOME Display Manager writes the chosen desktop environment in the Session menu to a '''.dmrc''' (display manager runtime configuration) file. '''/home/user1/.dmrc''' file<br /> <br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]# '''cat . dmrc''' <br /> :::[Desktop]<br /> :::Session=kde<br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]#_<br /> <br /> :*Root user in not allowed to log into GNOME Display Manager by default.<br /> ::'''/etc/pam.d/gdm''' and '''/etc/pam.d/gdm-password''' <br /> ::# auth required pam_succeed_if.so user !=root quiet<br /> :*GNOME Display Manager can be start manually using the gdm command<br /> <br /> <br /> == Configuring X Windows==<br /> <br /> :X.Org configuration file is /etc/X11/xorg.conf<br /> :XFree86 configuration file is /etc/X11/XF86Config <br /> :Mouse-test<br /> :System-config-keyboard command<br /> :System-config-display<br /> :Xvidtune to fine tune vertical and horizontal refresh rate.<br /> <br /> ----<br /> Information complied by Robert Klaers, LaPrice Ali, &amp; Sean Benecker</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=User_talk:Klae0010&diff=5347 2012-03-16T03:15:05Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows */</p> <hr /> <div>== ''Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows'' ==<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> == Boot Process== <br /> *Power on <br /> *System initializes<br /> *BIOS performs POST (power-on self test)<br /> *BIOS checks configuration and checks for boot devices and an OS to execute<br /> ** ''Typically floppy disks, CDs, DVDs, and USB devices are checked as they can contain installation media for an OS.'' <br /> ** ''If an OS isn’t found, the BIOS will check the MBR/GPT on the first HD.'' <br /> ** ''MBR/GPT may point to the partition where the boot loader found. If this is the case then the partition where the boot loader is found is called the active partition.'' <br /> <br /> ::: '''''See page 347 of the book for the flowchart of the boot process'''''<br /> <br /> :: ''Boot loader – main purpose is to load the OS kernel into memory.'' <br /> ::: '''NOTE:''' ''There can only be one active partition per HD.'' <br /> *Regardless of whether the boot loader is loaded from the MBR/GPT or the active partition the rest of the boot process continues as normal. Which is.. The kernel is executed and loaded into memory. <br /> *After loading the kernel, the boot loader becomes inactive. <br /> *Kernel continues by loading daemons into memory<br /> *Daemons are a system process which performs tasks such as printing scheduling, and OS maintenance. <br /> **The first daemon process is called the initialize (init) daemon. It’s responsible for loading all the other daemons on the system required to bring the system to a usable state where users can interact with it.<br /> <br /> == Boot Loaders==<br /> <br /> :As mentioned, the primary task of boot loaders is to load the OS kernel into memory. They do secondary tasks as well. This includes passing info the kernel during system startup and booting other OS’s which may be on the HD.<br /> &lt;br /&gt;<br /> ::Using a boot loader to boot one of several OS’s is known as '''dual booting'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === GRUB===<br /> : The most common and only boot loader supported by Fedora 13.<br /> :3 Stages<br /> ::Stage 1 : Generally resides in MBR/GPT and points to Stage 1.5<br /> ::Stages 1.5 : Resides in the /boot/grub directory and loads the file support and loads Stage 2<br /> ::Stage 2 : Also, reside in the /boot/grub directory. This part actually performs the boot loader operations and displayed the graphic boot loader screen. <br /> <br /> ::: This can be configured by editing the config file found at '''(/boot/grub/grub.conf)'''.<br /> ::: This is read by Stage 2, which is located on the partition called GRUB root partition.<br /> ::: To be able to read the info in '''boot/grub/grub.conf''' you must first understand how GRUB refers to partitions on HDs. <br /> : The format used is : ('''hd&lt;drive#&gt;,&lt;partition#&gt;''')<br /> :Examples. <br /> ::'' (hd0,0)'' = 1st HD , 1st Partition<br /> ::''(hd0,1)'' = 1st HD , 2nd Partition<br /> ::''(hd1,2)'' = 2st HD , 3st Partition<br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command :<br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda<br /> <br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command line: <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda <br /> :You can also use : <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda1<br /> : This is used to install GRUB Stage 1 to the front of the 1st primary part of the HD. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === LILO===<br /> <br /> :This is the traditional boot loader for Linux.<br /> :: No longer supported. <br /> :: Often found on distros which require a smaller boot loader, as well as legacy distros. <br /> :Can reside on the first sector of an active Linux partition, as with GRUB can be found in the MBR/GPT of the HD. When this is the case, when the computer completes the POST and locates LILO, a LILO boot : prompt appears. <br /> :Hitting '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' will display a list of OSs to boot. <br /> <br /> ::: A list of common '''/etc/lilo.conf''' keywords used to edit that file can be found on on page 353 of your book.<br /> <br /> :As robust as LILO is from time to time you may encounter a problem during loading. When this happens you’ll get an error code representing the problem. <br /> <br /> :::A list of commmon LILO error messages can be found on page 354 of your book. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === Dual Booting Linux===<br /> <br /> :Dual booting is the ability to boot to one of several different Oss which may be available on your computer. Basically the ability to boot a Linux system on the same computer you might also want to use to boot Win 7..or XP. <br /> <br /> ::You can dual boot using either GRUB or LILO.<br /> <br /> ::The recommended procedure to install the other OS(s) prior to installing Linux.<br /> <br /> ::The reason behind this is that Linux will detect the other OS(s) and place the appropriate entry into the boot loader config file.<br /> <br /> :LILO cannot boot load the Window kernel directly. <br /> ::It needs the ''other='' ''''keyword'''' in the '''/etc/lilo.conf''' file to tell it where to find the boot loader for Windows. <br /> <br /> :By adding ''optional'' this prevents the GRUB boot loader from looking for a Linux kernel. This is also followed by the label keyword which just IDs the OS being loaded should you his the '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' key at the LILO prompt. <br /> <br /> '''Alternate way to Dual Boot'''<br /> :You can use a Windows Boot Loader (WBL) the same way you can use a Linux Boot Loader. <br /> <br /> :As it’s not designed to boot the Linux kernel, you need to go into the WBL and modify some some components <br /> <br /> :This can be a bit involved so easier to just install Linux after any other OSs you may also want to Dual Boot. <br /> :Page 358 details what you would need to do if this is how you want to dual boot. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Linux Initialization==<br /> <br /> :After the boot loader loads the Linux OS kernel into memory, the kernel resumes control and executes the first daemon, called ''init'', on the system.<br /> <br /> :: Remember: ''A daemon is a Linux system process that provides a certain service.'' <br /> <br /> :The init daemon uses configuration file, ''/etc/initab'' (short for “init table”) to determine the number of daemons that needs to be loaded on the system.<br /> <br /> :The init daemon is responsible for uploading daemons that are loaded into memory when the system is halted or rebooted.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runlevels===<br /> <br /> :The init daemon often has to manage several daemons at once.<br /> <br /> :Each category is categorized into Runlevels.<br /> <br /> :What is a runlevel? A runlevel defines the number and type of daemons that are loaded into memory and executed by the kernel on a particular system.<br /> <br /> :They are seven standard runlevels:<br /> :: '''0''' ... ''Transitional, Shuts down the system.'' <br /> :::''Should completely power down the system.''<br /> :: '''1''', '''s''', or '''S''' ... ''Single user mode.''<br /> :::''Used for low-level system maintenance impaired by normal system operation.''<br /> :: '''2''' ... ''Full muti-user mode with a graphical login.''<br /> :::''Used on Debian'' <br /> :: '''3''' ... ''Full multi-user mode with a console login.''<br /> :::''Used on Fedora, Mandriva, Red Hat, and most other distributions.'' <br /> :: '''4''' ... ''Undefined by default''<br /> :::''Used for customization''<br /> :: '''5''' ...'' Same as runlevel 3 with the addition of having X run with XDM (graphical) login.''<br /> :: '''6''' ...''Used to reboot the system.''<br /> :::''Also a transitional runlevel.''<br /> <br /> : '''To check out the current and/or previous runlevel.'''<br /> :: Type the runlevel command.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::N=nonexistent<br /> :::5= current runlevel.<br /> <br /> ::To change the runlevel from 5 to 1 type command<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 1<br /> <br /> ::If you’re in single mode and you want to change the runlevel from 1 back to 5. Type the following command.:<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 5<br /> <br /> ::The results are<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::S 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> ::Notice that the runlevel command displays the most current and most recent runlevel.<br /> :Unless you specify, the init daemon will run the default runlevel indicated in the '''/etc/inittab file'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runtime config scripts===<br /> <br /> :Scripts that run during the boot process. The purpose is to start daemons and bring the system to a useable state.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Configuring Daemon Setup===<br /> <br /> :Points to the appropriate scripts within the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. <br /> <br /> :Most Daemon scripts accept the arguments '''start, stop,''' and '''restart'''.<br /> <br /> :After system startup you can execute them directly from the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # ''/etc/rc.d/init.d/crond restart''<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :Or you can use the '''service command''' to start, stop or restart any daemons listed in the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. To restart the crond daemon type this.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # service cond restart<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To view and modify daemons that are started in each runlevel, you can use the '''chkconfig''' command.<br /> <br /> :The chkconfig command views and manipulates the appropriate runtime configuration files in the '''/etc/rc.d/rc*.d''' directories.<br /> <br /> :For example the following command indicates the ntpd daemon is not started in any runlevel,<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:off 4:off 5:off 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To configure the ntpd daemon to start in runlevels 3 and 5, and to verify the results, you could run the following commands.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – level 35 ntpd on'''<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:on 4:off 5:on 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> == X Windows System==<br /> :Components of the Linux GUI<br /> :Graphical Programs (X Clients)<br /> :Desktop environment<br /> :Window Manager<br /> :X Windows<br /> :Video Hardware<br /> <br /> === X Windows===<br /> :Developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1984<br /> :Maintained as Open Source Software by the X.Org Foundation<br /> :The freely available version used in may Linux distributions is called XFree86<br /> <br /> <br /> === Windows Manager and Desktop Environs===<br /> <br /> ::Window managers are used to modify the look and feel of X Windows. <br /> :: Common windows managers can be found on page 370 of your book. <br /> <br /> :'''K Desktop Environment (KDE)'''<br /> ::Released in 1996<br /> ::Uses K Window Manager (kwin) and Qt toolkit<br /> <br /> : '''GNOME'''<br /> :: Created in 1997<br /> :: Uses Metacity Window Manager and GTK+ toolkit<br /> <br /> <br /> === Starting and Stopping X Windows===<br /> <br /> :*GNOME Display Manager writes the chosen desktop environment in the Session menu to a '''.dmrc''' (display manager runtime configuration) file. '''/home/user1/.dmrc''' file<br /> <br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]# '''cat . dmrc''' <br /> :::[Desktop]<br /> :::Session=kde<br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]#_<br /> <br /> :*Root user in not allowed to log into GNOME Display Manager by default.<br /> ::'''/etc/pam.d/gdm''' and '''/etc/pam.d/gdm-password''' <br /> ::# auth required pam_succeed_if.so user !=root quiet<br /> :*GNOME Display Manager can be start manually using the gdm command<br /> <br /> <br /> == Configuring X Windows==<br /> <br /> :X.Org configuration file is /etc/X11/xorg.conf<br /> :XFree86 configuration file is /etc/X11/XF86Config <br /> :Mouse-test<br /> :System-config-keyboard command<br /> :System-config-display<br /> :Xvidtune to fine tune vertical and horizontal refresh rate.<br /> <br /> ----<br /> Information complied by Robert Klaers, LaPrice Ali, &amp; Sean Benecker</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=User_talk:Klae0010&diff=5346 2012-03-16T03:14:41Z

<p>Klae0010: </p> <hr /> <div>=Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows=<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> == Boot Process== <br /> *Power on <br /> *System initializes<br /> *BIOS performs POST (power-on self test)<br /> *BIOS checks configuration and checks for boot devices and an OS to execute<br /> ** ''Typically floppy disks, CDs, DVDs, and USB devices are checked as they can contain installation media for an OS.'' <br /> ** ''If an OS isn’t found, the BIOS will check the MBR/GPT on the first HD.'' <br /> ** ''MBR/GPT may point to the partition where the boot loader found. If this is the case then the partition where the boot loader is found is called the active partition.'' <br /> <br /> ::: '''''See page 347 of the book for the flowchart of the boot process'''''<br /> <br /> :: ''Boot loader – main purpose is to load the OS kernel into memory.'' <br /> ::: '''NOTE:''' ''There can only be one active partition per HD.'' <br /> *Regardless of whether the boot loader is loaded from the MBR/GPT or the active partition the rest of the boot process continues as normal. Which is.. The kernel is executed and loaded into memory. <br /> *After loading the kernel, the boot loader becomes inactive. <br /> *Kernel continues by loading daemons into memory<br /> *Daemons are a system process which performs tasks such as printing scheduling, and OS maintenance. <br /> **The first daemon process is called the initialize (init) daemon. It’s responsible for loading all the other daemons on the system required to bring the system to a usable state where users can interact with it.<br /> <br /> == Boot Loaders==<br /> <br /> :As mentioned, the primary task of boot loaders is to load the OS kernel into memory. They do secondary tasks as well. This includes passing info the kernel during system startup and booting other OS’s which may be on the HD.<br /> &lt;br /&gt;<br /> ::Using a boot loader to boot one of several OS’s is known as '''dual booting'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === GRUB===<br /> : The most common and only boot loader supported by Fedora 13.<br /> :3 Stages<br /> ::Stage 1 : Generally resides in MBR/GPT and points to Stage 1.5<br /> ::Stages 1.5 : Resides in the /boot/grub directory and loads the file support and loads Stage 2<br /> ::Stage 2 : Also, reside in the /boot/grub directory. This part actually performs the boot loader operations and displayed the graphic boot loader screen. <br /> <br /> ::: This can be configured by editing the config file found at '''(/boot/grub/grub.conf)'''.<br /> ::: This is read by Stage 2, which is located on the partition called GRUB root partition.<br /> ::: To be able to read the info in '''boot/grub/grub.conf''' you must first understand how GRUB refers to partitions on HDs. <br /> : The format used is : ('''hd&lt;drive#&gt;,&lt;partition#&gt;''')<br /> :Examples. <br /> ::'' (hd0,0)'' = 1st HD , 1st Partition<br /> ::''(hd0,1)'' = 1st HD , 2nd Partition<br /> ::''(hd1,2)'' = 2st HD , 3st Partition<br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command :<br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda<br /> <br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command line: <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda <br /> :You can also use : <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda1<br /> : This is used to install GRUB Stage 1 to the front of the 1st primary part of the HD. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === LILO===<br /> <br /> :This is the traditional boot loader for Linux.<br /> :: No longer supported. <br /> :: Often found on distros which require a smaller boot loader, as well as legacy distros. <br /> :Can reside on the first sector of an active Linux partition, as with GRUB can be found in the MBR/GPT of the HD. When this is the case, when the computer completes the POST and locates LILO, a LILO boot : prompt appears. <br /> :Hitting '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' will display a list of OSs to boot. <br /> <br /> ::: A list of common '''/etc/lilo.conf''' keywords used to edit that file can be found on on page 353 of your book.<br /> <br /> :As robust as LILO is from time to time you may encounter a problem during loading. When this happens you’ll get an error code representing the problem. <br /> <br /> :::A list of commmon LILO error messages can be found on page 354 of your book. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === Dual Booting Linux===<br /> <br /> :Dual booting is the ability to boot to one of several different Oss which may be available on your computer. Basically the ability to boot a Linux system on the same computer you might also want to use to boot Win 7..or XP. <br /> <br /> ::You can dual boot using either GRUB or LILO.<br /> <br /> ::The recommended procedure to install the other OS(s) prior to installing Linux.<br /> <br /> ::The reason behind this is that Linux will detect the other OS(s) and place the appropriate entry into the boot loader config file.<br /> <br /> :LILO cannot boot load the Window kernel directly. <br /> ::It needs the ''other='' ''''keyword'''' in the '''/etc/lilo.conf''' file to tell it where to find the boot loader for Windows. <br /> <br /> :By adding ''optional'' this prevents the GRUB boot loader from looking for a Linux kernel. This is also followed by the label keyword which just IDs the OS being loaded should you his the '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' key at the LILO prompt. <br /> <br /> '''Alternate way to Dual Boot'''<br /> :You can use a Windows Boot Loader (WBL) the same way you can use a Linux Boot Loader. <br /> <br /> :As it’s not designed to boot the Linux kernel, you need to go into the WBL and modify some some components <br /> <br /> :This can be a bit involved so easier to just install Linux after any other OSs you may also want to Dual Boot. <br /> :Page 358 details what you would need to do if this is how you want to dual boot. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Linux Initialization==<br /> <br /> :After the boot loader loads the Linux OS kernel into memory, the kernel resumes control and executes the first daemon, called ''init'', on the system.<br /> <br /> :: Remember: ''A daemon is a Linux system process that provides a certain service.'' <br /> <br /> :The init daemon uses configuration file, ''/etc/initab'' (short for “init table”) to determine the number of daemons that needs to be loaded on the system.<br /> <br /> :The init daemon is responsible for uploading daemons that are loaded into memory when the system is halted or rebooted.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runlevels===<br /> <br /> :The init daemon often has to manage several daemons at once.<br /> <br /> :Each category is categorized into Runlevels.<br /> <br /> :What is a runlevel? A runlevel defines the number and type of daemons that are loaded into memory and executed by the kernel on a particular system.<br /> <br /> :They are seven standard runlevels:<br /> :: '''0''' ... ''Transitional, Shuts down the system.'' <br /> :::''Should completely power down the system.''<br /> :: '''1''', '''s''', or '''S''' ... ''Single user mode.''<br /> :::''Used for low-level system maintenance impaired by normal system operation.''<br /> :: '''2''' ... ''Full muti-user mode with a graphical login.''<br /> :::''Used on Debian'' <br /> :: '''3''' ... ''Full multi-user mode with a console login.''<br /> :::''Used on Fedora, Mandriva, Red Hat, and most other distributions.'' <br /> :: '''4''' ... ''Undefined by default''<br /> :::''Used for customization''<br /> :: '''5''' ...'' Same as runlevel 3 with the addition of having X run with XDM (graphical) login.''<br /> :: '''6''' ...''Used to reboot the system.''<br /> :::''Also a transitional runlevel.''<br /> <br /> : '''To check out the current and/or previous runlevel.'''<br /> :: Type the runlevel command.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::N=nonexistent<br /> :::5= current runlevel.<br /> <br /> ::To change the runlevel from 5 to 1 type command<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 1<br /> <br /> ::If you’re in single mode and you want to change the runlevel from 1 back to 5. Type the following command.:<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 5<br /> <br /> ::The results are<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::S 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> ::Notice that the runlevel command displays the most current and most recent runlevel.<br /> :Unless you specify, the init daemon will run the default runlevel indicated in the '''/etc/inittab file'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runtime config scripts===<br /> <br /> :Scripts that run during the boot process. The purpose is to start daemons and bring the system to a useable state.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Configuring Daemon Setup===<br /> <br /> :Points to the appropriate scripts within the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. <br /> <br /> :Most Daemon scripts accept the arguments '''start, stop,''' and '''restart'''.<br /> <br /> :After system startup you can execute them directly from the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # ''/etc/rc.d/init.d/crond restart''<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :Or you can use the '''service command''' to start, stop or restart any daemons listed in the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. To restart the crond daemon type this.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # service cond restart<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To view and modify daemons that are started in each runlevel, you can use the '''chkconfig''' command.<br /> <br /> :The chkconfig command views and manipulates the appropriate runtime configuration files in the '''/etc/rc.d/rc*.d''' directories.<br /> <br /> :For example the following command indicates the ntpd daemon is not started in any runlevel,<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:off 4:off 5:off 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To configure the ntpd daemon to start in runlevels 3 and 5, and to verify the results, you could run the following commands.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – level 35 ntpd on'''<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:on 4:off 5:on 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> == X Windows System==<br /> :Components of the Linux GUI<br /> :Graphical Programs (X Clients)<br /> :Desktop environment<br /> :Window Manager<br /> :X Windows<br /> :Video Hardware<br /> <br /> === X Windows===<br /> :Developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1984<br /> :Maintained as Open Source Software by the X.Org Foundation<br /> :The freely available version used in may Linux distributions is called XFree86<br /> <br /> <br /> === Windows Manager and Desktop Environs===<br /> <br /> ::Window managers are used to modify the look and feel of X Windows. <br /> :: Common windows managers can be found on page 370 of your book. <br /> <br /> :'''K Desktop Environment (KDE)'''<br /> ::Released in 1996<br /> ::Uses K Window Manager (kwin) and Qt toolkit<br /> <br /> : '''GNOME'''<br /> :: Created in 1997<br /> :: Uses Metacity Window Manager and GTK+ toolkit<br /> <br /> <br /> === Starting and Stopping X Windows===<br /> <br /> :*GNOME Display Manager writes the chosen desktop environment in the Session menu to a '''.dmrc''' (display manager runtime configuration) file. '''/home/user1/.dmrc''' file<br /> <br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]# '''cat . dmrc''' <br /> :::[Desktop]<br /> :::Session=kde<br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]#_<br /> <br /> :*Root user in not allowed to log into GNOME Display Manager by default.<br /> ::'''/etc/pam.d/gdm''' and '''/etc/pam.d/gdm-password''' <br /> ::# auth required pam_succeed_if.so user !=root quiet<br /> :*GNOME Display Manager can be start manually using the gdm command<br /> <br /> <br /> == Configuring X Windows==<br /> <br /> :X.Org configuration file is /etc/X11/xorg.conf<br /> :XFree86 configuration file is /etc/X11/XF86Config <br /> :Mouse-test<br /> :System-config-keyboard command<br /> :System-config-display<br /> :Xvidtune to fine tune vertical and horizontal refresh rate.<br /> <br /> ----<br /> Information complied by Robert Klaers, LaPrice Ali, &amp; Sean Benecker</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=User_talk:Klae0010&diff=5345 2012-03-16T03:13:30Z

<p>Klae0010: </p> <hr /> <div>Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> == Boot Process== <br /> *Power on <br /> *System initializes<br /> *BIOS performs POST (power-on self test)<br /> *BIOS checks configuration and checks for boot devices and an OS to execute<br /> ** ''Typically floppy disks, CDs, DVDs, and USB devices are checked as they can contain installation media for an OS.'' <br /> ** ''If an OS isn’t found, the BIOS will check the MBR/GPT on the first HD.'' <br /> ** ''MBR/GPT may point to the partition where the boot loader found. If this is the case then the partition where the boot loader is found is called the active partition.'' <br /> <br /> ::: '''''See page 347 of the book for the flowchart of the boot process'''''<br /> <br /> :: ''Boot loader – main purpose is to load the OS kernel into memory.'' <br /> ::: '''NOTE:''' ''There can only be one active partition per HD.'' <br /> *Regardless of whether the boot loader is loaded from the MBR/GPT or the active partition the rest of the boot process continues as normal. Which is.. The kernel is executed and loaded into memory. <br /> *After loading the kernel, the boot loader becomes inactive. <br /> *Kernel continues by loading daemons into memory<br /> *Daemons are a system process which performs tasks such as printing scheduling, and OS maintenance. <br /> **The first daemon process is called the initialize (init) daemon. It’s responsible for loading all the other daemons on the system required to bring the system to a usable state where users can interact with it.<br /> <br /> == Boot Loaders==<br /> <br /> :As mentioned, the primary task of boot loaders is to load the OS kernel into memory. They do secondary tasks as well. This includes passing info the kernel during system startup and booting other OS’s which may be on the HD.<br /> &lt;br /&gt;<br /> ::Using a boot loader to boot one of several OS’s is known as '''dual booting'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === GRUB===<br /> : The most common and only boot loader supported by Fedora 13.<br /> :3 Stages<br /> ::Stage 1 : Generally resides in MBR/GPT and points to Stage 1.5<br /> ::Stages 1.5 : Resides in the /boot/grub directory and loads the file support and loads Stage 2<br /> ::Stage 2 : Also, reside in the /boot/grub directory. This part actually performs the boot loader operations and displayed the graphic boot loader screen. <br /> <br /> ::: This can be configured by editing the config file found at '''(/boot/grub/grub.conf)'''.<br /> ::: This is read by Stage 2, which is located on the partition called GRUB root partition.<br /> ::: To be able to read the info in '''boot/grub/grub.conf''' you must first understand how GRUB refers to partitions on HDs. <br /> : The format used is : ('''hd&lt;drive#&gt;,&lt;partition#&gt;''')<br /> :Examples. <br /> ::'' (hd0,0)'' = 1st HD , 1st Partition<br /> ::''(hd0,1)'' = 1st HD , 2nd Partition<br /> ::''(hd1,2)'' = 2st HD , 3st Partition<br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command :<br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda<br /> <br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command line: <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda <br /> :You can also use : <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda1<br /> : This is used to install GRUB Stage 1 to the front of the 1st primary part of the HD. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === LILO===<br /> <br /> :This is the traditional boot loader for Linux.<br /> :: No longer supported. <br /> :: Often found on distros which require a smaller boot loader, as well as legacy distros. <br /> :Can reside on the first sector of an active Linux partition, as with GRUB can be found in the MBR/GPT of the HD. When this is the case, when the computer completes the POST and locates LILO, a LILO boot : prompt appears. <br /> :Hitting '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' will display a list of OSs to boot. <br /> <br /> ::: A list of common '''/etc/lilo.conf''' keywords used to edit that file can be found on on page 353 of your book.<br /> <br /> :As robust as LILO is from time to time you may encounter a problem during loading. When this happens you’ll get an error code representing the problem. <br /> <br /> :::A list of commmon LILO error messages can be found on page 354 of your book. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === Dual Booting Linux===<br /> <br /> :Dual booting is the ability to boot to one of several different Oss which may be available on your computer. Basically the ability to boot a Linux system on the same computer you might also want to use to boot Win 7..or XP. <br /> <br /> ::You can dual boot using either GRUB or LILO.<br /> <br /> ::The recommended procedure to install the other OS(s) prior to installing Linux.<br /> <br /> ::The reason behind this is that Linux will detect the other OS(s) and place the appropriate entry into the boot loader config file.<br /> <br /> :LILO cannot boot load the Window kernel directly. <br /> ::It needs the ''other='' ''''keyword'''' in the '''/etc/lilo.conf''' file to tell it where to find the boot loader for Windows. <br /> <br /> :By adding ''optional'' this prevents the GRUB boot loader from looking for a Linux kernel. This is also followed by the label keyword which just IDs the OS being loaded should you his the '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' key at the LILO prompt. <br /> <br /> '''Alternate way to Dual Boot'''<br /> :You can use a Windows Boot Loader (WBL) the same way you can use a Linux Boot Loader. <br /> <br /> :As it’s not designed to boot the Linux kernel, you need to go into the WBL and modify some some components <br /> <br /> :This can be a bit involved so easier to just install Linux after any other OSs you may also want to Dual Boot. <br /> :Page 358 details what you would need to do if this is how you want to dual boot. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Linux Initialization==<br /> <br /> :After the boot loader loads the Linux OS kernel into memory, the kernel resumes control and executes the first daemon, called ''init'', on the system.<br /> <br /> :: Remember: ''A daemon is a Linux system process that provides a certain service.'' <br /> <br /> :The init daemon uses configuration file, ''/etc/initab'' (short for “init table”) to determine the number of daemons that needs to be loaded on the system.<br /> <br /> :The init daemon is responsible for uploading daemons that are loaded into memory when the system is halted or rebooted.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runlevels===<br /> <br /> :The init daemon often has to manage several daemons at once.<br /> <br /> :Each category is categorized into Runlevels.<br /> <br /> :What is a runlevel? A runlevel defines the number and type of daemons that are loaded into memory and executed by the kernel on a particular system.<br /> <br /> :They are seven standard runlevels:<br /> :: '''0''' ... ''Transitional, Shuts down the system.'' <br /> :::''Should completely power down the system.''<br /> :: '''1''', '''s''', or '''S''' ... ''Single user mode.''<br /> :::''Used for low-level system maintenance impaired by normal system operation.''<br /> :: '''2''' ... ''Full muti-user mode with a graphical login.''<br /> :::''Used on Debian'' <br /> :: '''3''' ... ''Full multi-user mode with a console login.''<br /> :::''Used on Fedora, Mandriva, Red Hat, and most other distributions.'' <br /> :: '''4''' ... ''Undefined by default''<br /> :::''Used for customization''<br /> :: '''5''' ...'' Same as runlevel 3 with the addition of having X run with XDM (graphical) login.''<br /> :: '''6''' ...''Used to reboot the system.''<br /> :::''Also a transitional runlevel.''<br /> <br /> : '''To check out the current and/or previous runlevel.'''<br /> :: Type the runlevel command.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::N=nonexistent<br /> :::5= current runlevel.<br /> <br /> ::To change the runlevel from 5 to 1 type command<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 1<br /> <br /> ::If you’re in single mode and you want to change the runlevel from 1 back to 5. Type the following command.:<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 5<br /> <br /> ::The results are<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::S 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> ::Notice that the runlevel command displays the most current and most recent runlevel.<br /> :Unless you specify, the init daemon will run the default runlevel indicated in the '''/etc/inittab file'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runtime config scripts===<br /> <br /> :Scripts that run during the boot process. The purpose is to start daemons and bring the system to a useable state.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Configuring Daemon Setup===<br /> <br /> :Points to the appropriate scripts within the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. <br /> <br /> :Most Daemon scripts accept the arguments '''start, stop,''' and '''restart'''.<br /> <br /> :After system startup you can execute them directly from the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # ''/etc/rc.d/init.d/crond restart''<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :Or you can use the '''service command''' to start, stop or restart any daemons listed in the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. To restart the crond daemon type this.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # service cond restart<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To view and modify daemons that are started in each runlevel, you can use the '''chkconfig''' command.<br /> <br /> :The chkconfig command views and manipulates the appropriate runtime configuration files in the '''/etc/rc.d/rc*.d''' directories.<br /> <br /> :For example the following command indicates the ntpd daemon is not started in any runlevel,<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:off 4:off 5:off 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To configure the ntpd daemon to start in runlevels 3 and 5, and to verify the results, you could run the following commands.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – level 35 ntpd on'''<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:on 4:off 5:on 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> == X Windows System==<br /> :Components of the Linux GUI<br /> :Graphical Programs (X Clients)<br /> :Desktop environment<br /> :Window Manager<br /> :X Windows<br /> :Video Hardware<br /> <br /> === X Windows===<br /> :Developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1984<br /> :Maintained as Open Source Software by the X.Org Foundation<br /> :The freely available version used in may Linux distributions is called XFree86<br /> <br /> <br /> === Windows Manager and Desktop Environs===<br /> <br /> ::Window managers are used to modify the look and feel of X Windows. <br /> :: Common windows managers can be found on page 370 of your book. <br /> <br /> :'''K Desktop Environment (KDE)'''<br /> ::Released in 1996<br /> ::Uses K Window Manager (kwin) and Qt toolkit<br /> <br /> : '''GNOME'''<br /> :: Created in 1997<br /> :: Uses Metacity Window Manager and GTK+ toolkit<br /> <br /> <br /> === Starting and Stopping X Windows===<br /> <br /> :*GNOME Display Manager writes the chosen desktop environment in the Session menu to a '''.dmrc''' (display manager runtime configuration) file. '''/home/user1/.dmrc''' file<br /> <br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]# '''cat . dmrc''' <br /> :::[Desktop]<br /> :::Session=kde<br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]#_<br /> <br /> :*Root user in not allowed to log into GNOME Display Manager by default.<br /> ::'''/etc/pam.d/gdm''' and '''/etc/pam.d/gdm-password''' <br /> ::# auth required pam_succeed_if.so user !=root quiet<br /> :*GNOME Display Manager can be start manually using the gdm command<br /> <br /> <br /> == Configuring X Windows==<br /> <br /> :X.Org configuration file is /etc/X11/xorg.conf<br /> :XFree86 configuration file is /etc/X11/XF86Config <br /> :Mouse-test<br /> :System-config-keyboard command<br /> :System-config-display<br /> :Xvidtune to fine tune vertical and horizontal refresh rate.<br /> <br /> ----<br /> Information complied by Robert Klaers, LaPrice Ali, &amp; Sean Benecker</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=User_talk:Klae0010&diff=5344 2012-03-16T03:13:11Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Boot Process */</p> <hr /> <div>Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> Subjects covered:<br /> == Boot Process== <br /> *Power on <br /> *System initializes<br /> *BIOS performs POST (power-on self test)<br /> *BIOS checks configuration and checks for boot devices and an OS to execute<br /> ** ''Typically floppy disks, CDs, DVDs, and USB devices are checked as they can contain installation media for an OS.'' <br /> ** ''If an OS isn’t found, the BIOS will check the MBR/GPT on the first HD.'' <br /> ** ''MBR/GPT may point to the partition where the boot loader found. If this is the case then the partition where the boot loader is found is called the active partition.'' <br /> <br /> ::: '''''See page 347 of the book for the flowchart of the boot process'''''<br /> <br /> :: ''Boot loader – main purpose is to load the OS kernel into memory.'' <br /> ::: '''NOTE:''' ''There can only be one active partition per HD.'' <br /> *Regardless of whether the boot loader is loaded from the MBR/GPT or the active partition the rest of the boot process continues as normal. Which is.. The kernel is executed and loaded into memory. <br /> *After loading the kernel, the boot loader becomes inactive. <br /> *Kernel continues by loading daemons into memory<br /> *Daemons are a system process which performs tasks such as printing scheduling, and OS maintenance. <br /> **The first daemon process is called the initialize (init) daemon. It’s responsible for loading all the other daemons on the system required to bring the system to a usable state where users can interact with it.<br /> <br /> == Boot Loaders==<br /> <br /> :As mentioned, the primary task of boot loaders is to load the OS kernel into memory. They do secondary tasks as well. This includes passing info the kernel during system startup and booting other OS’s which may be on the HD.<br /> &lt;br /&gt;<br /> ::Using a boot loader to boot one of several OS’s is known as '''dual booting'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === GRUB===<br /> : The most common and only boot loader supported by Fedora 13.<br /> :3 Stages<br /> ::Stage 1 : Generally resides in MBR/GPT and points to Stage 1.5<br /> ::Stages 1.5 : Resides in the /boot/grub directory and loads the file support and loads Stage 2<br /> ::Stage 2 : Also, reside in the /boot/grub directory. This part actually performs the boot loader operations and displayed the graphic boot loader screen. <br /> <br /> ::: This can be configured by editing the config file found at '''(/boot/grub/grub.conf)'''.<br /> ::: This is read by Stage 2, which is located on the partition called GRUB root partition.<br /> ::: To be able to read the info in '''boot/grub/grub.conf''' you must first understand how GRUB refers to partitions on HDs. <br /> : The format used is : ('''hd&lt;drive#&gt;,&lt;partition#&gt;''')<br /> :Examples. <br /> ::'' (hd0,0)'' = 1st HD , 1st Partition<br /> ::''(hd0,1)'' = 1st HD , 2nd Partition<br /> ::''(hd1,2)'' = 2st HD , 3st Partition<br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command :<br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda<br /> <br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command line: <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda <br /> :You can also use : <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda1<br /> : This is used to install GRUB Stage 1 to the front of the 1st primary part of the HD. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === LILO===<br /> <br /> :This is the traditional boot loader for Linux.<br /> :: No longer supported. <br /> :: Often found on distros which require a smaller boot loader, as well as legacy distros. <br /> :Can reside on the first sector of an active Linux partition, as with GRUB can be found in the MBR/GPT of the HD. When this is the case, when the computer completes the POST and locates LILO, a LILO boot : prompt appears. <br /> :Hitting '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' will display a list of OSs to boot. <br /> <br /> ::: A list of common '''/etc/lilo.conf''' keywords used to edit that file can be found on on page 353 of your book.<br /> <br /> :As robust as LILO is from time to time you may encounter a problem during loading. When this happens you’ll get an error code representing the problem. <br /> <br /> :::A list of commmon LILO error messages can be found on page 354 of your book. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === Dual Booting Linux===<br /> <br /> :Dual booting is the ability to boot to one of several different Oss which may be available on your computer. Basically the ability to boot a Linux system on the same computer you might also want to use to boot Win 7..or XP. <br /> <br /> ::You can dual boot using either GRUB or LILO.<br /> <br /> ::The recommended procedure to install the other OS(s) prior to installing Linux.<br /> <br /> ::The reason behind this is that Linux will detect the other OS(s) and place the appropriate entry into the boot loader config file.<br /> <br /> :LILO cannot boot load the Window kernel directly. <br /> ::It needs the ''other='' ''''keyword'''' in the '''/etc/lilo.conf''' file to tell it where to find the boot loader for Windows. <br /> <br /> :By adding ''optional'' this prevents the GRUB boot loader from looking for a Linux kernel. This is also followed by the label keyword which just IDs the OS being loaded should you his the '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' key at the LILO prompt. <br /> <br /> '''Alternate way to Dual Boot'''<br /> :You can use a Windows Boot Loader (WBL) the same way you can use a Linux Boot Loader. <br /> <br /> :As it’s not designed to boot the Linux kernel, you need to go into the WBL and modify some some components <br /> <br /> :This can be a bit involved so easier to just install Linux after any other OSs you may also want to Dual Boot. <br /> :Page 358 details what you would need to do if this is how you want to dual boot. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Linux Initialization==<br /> <br /> :After the boot loader loads the Linux OS kernel into memory, the kernel resumes control and executes the first daemon, called ''init'', on the system.<br /> <br /> :: Remember: ''A daemon is a Linux system process that provides a certain service.'' <br /> <br /> :The init daemon uses configuration file, ''/etc/initab'' (short for “init table”) to determine the number of daemons that needs to be loaded on the system.<br /> <br /> :The init daemon is responsible for uploading daemons that are loaded into memory when the system is halted or rebooted.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runlevels===<br /> <br /> :The init daemon often has to manage several daemons at once.<br /> <br /> :Each category is categorized into Runlevels.<br /> <br /> :What is a runlevel? A runlevel defines the number and type of daemons that are loaded into memory and executed by the kernel on a particular system.<br /> <br /> :They are seven standard runlevels:<br /> :: '''0''' ... ''Transitional, Shuts down the system.'' <br /> :::''Should completely power down the system.''<br /> :: '''1''', '''s''', or '''S''' ... ''Single user mode.''<br /> :::''Used for low-level system maintenance impaired by normal system operation.''<br /> :: '''2''' ... ''Full muti-user mode with a graphical login.''<br /> :::''Used on Debian'' <br /> :: '''3''' ... ''Full multi-user mode with a console login.''<br /> :::''Used on Fedora, Mandriva, Red Hat, and most other distributions.'' <br /> :: '''4''' ... ''Undefined by default''<br /> :::''Used for customization''<br /> :: '''5''' ...'' Same as runlevel 3 with the addition of having X run with XDM (graphical) login.''<br /> :: '''6''' ...''Used to reboot the system.''<br /> :::''Also a transitional runlevel.''<br /> <br /> : '''To check out the current and/or previous runlevel.'''<br /> :: Type the runlevel command.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::N=nonexistent<br /> :::5= current runlevel.<br /> <br /> ::To change the runlevel from 5 to 1 type command<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 1<br /> <br /> ::If you’re in single mode and you want to change the runlevel from 1 back to 5. Type the following command.:<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 5<br /> <br /> ::The results are<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::S 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> ::Notice that the runlevel command displays the most current and most recent runlevel.<br /> :Unless you specify, the init daemon will run the default runlevel indicated in the '''/etc/inittab file'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runtime config scripts===<br /> <br /> :Scripts that run during the boot process. The purpose is to start daemons and bring the system to a useable state.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Configuring Daemon Setup===<br /> <br /> :Points to the appropriate scripts within the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. <br /> <br /> :Most Daemon scripts accept the arguments '''start, stop,''' and '''restart'''.<br /> <br /> :After system startup you can execute them directly from the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # ''/etc/rc.d/init.d/crond restart''<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :Or you can use the '''service command''' to start, stop or restart any daemons listed in the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. To restart the crond daemon type this.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # service cond restart<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To view and modify daemons that are started in each runlevel, you can use the '''chkconfig''' command.<br /> <br /> :The chkconfig command views and manipulates the appropriate runtime configuration files in the '''/etc/rc.d/rc*.d''' directories.<br /> <br /> :For example the following command indicates the ntpd daemon is not started in any runlevel,<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:off 4:off 5:off 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To configure the ntpd daemon to start in runlevels 3 and 5, and to verify the results, you could run the following commands.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – level 35 ntpd on'''<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:on 4:off 5:on 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> == X Windows System==<br /> :Components of the Linux GUI<br /> :Graphical Programs (X Clients)<br /> :Desktop environment<br /> :Window Manager<br /> :X Windows<br /> :Video Hardware<br /> <br /> === X Windows===<br /> :Developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1984<br /> :Maintained as Open Source Software by the X.Org Foundation<br /> :The freely available version used in may Linux distributions is called XFree86<br /> <br /> <br /> === Windows Manager and Desktop Environs===<br /> <br /> ::Window managers are used to modify the look and feel of X Windows. <br /> :: Common windows managers can be found on page 370 of your book. <br /> <br /> :'''K Desktop Environment (KDE)'''<br /> ::Released in 1996<br /> ::Uses K Window Manager (kwin) and Qt toolkit<br /> <br /> : '''GNOME'''<br /> :: Created in 1997<br /> :: Uses Metacity Window Manager and GTK+ toolkit<br /> <br /> <br /> === Starting and Stopping X Windows===<br /> <br /> :*GNOME Display Manager writes the chosen desktop environment in the Session menu to a '''.dmrc''' (display manager runtime configuration) file. '''/home/user1/.dmrc''' file<br /> <br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]# '''cat . dmrc''' <br /> :::[Desktop]<br /> :::Session=kde<br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]#_<br /> <br /> :*Root user in not allowed to log into GNOME Display Manager by default.<br /> ::'''/etc/pam.d/gdm''' and '''/etc/pam.d/gdm-password''' <br /> ::# auth required pam_succeed_if.so user !=root quiet<br /> :*GNOME Display Manager can be start manually using the gdm command<br /> <br /> <br /> == Configuring X Windows==<br /> <br /> :X.Org configuration file is /etc/X11/xorg.conf<br /> :XFree86 configuration file is /etc/X11/XF86Config <br /> :Mouse-test<br /> :System-config-keyboard command<br /> :System-config-display<br /> :Xvidtune to fine tune vertical and horizontal refresh rate.<br /> <br /> ----<br /> Information complied by Robert Klaers, LaPrice Ali, &amp; Sean Benecker</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=User_talk:Klae0010&diff=5343 2012-03-16T03:12:41Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Configuring X Windows */</p> <hr /> <div>Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> Subjects covered:<br /> == Boot Process== <br /> *Power on <br /> *System initializes<br /> *BIOS performs POST (power-on self test)<br /> *BIOS checks configuration and checks for boot devices and an OS to execute<br /> ** ''Typically floppy disks, CDs, DVDs, and USB devices are checked as they can contain installation media for an OS.'' <br /> ** ''If an OS isn’t found, the BIOS will check the MBR/GPT on the first HD.'' <br /> ** ''MBR/GPT may point to the partition where the boot loader found. If this is the case then the partition where the boot loader is found is called the active partition.'' <br /> <br /> ::: '''''See page 347 of the book for the flowchart of the boot process'''''<br /> <br /> :: ''Boot loader – main purpose is to load the OS kernel into memory.'' <br /> ::: '''NOTE:''' ''There can only be one active partition per HD.'' <br /> *Regardless of whether the boot loader is loaded from the MBR/GPT or the active partition the rest of the boot process continues as normal. Which is.. The kernel is executed and loaded into memory. <br /> *After loading the kernel, the boot loader becomes inactive. <br /> *Kernel continues by loading daemons into memory<br /> *Daemons are a system process which performs tasks such as printing scheduling, and OS maintenance. <br /> **The first daemon process is called the initialize (init) daemon. It’s responsible for loading all the other daemons on the system required to bring the system to a usable state where users can interact with it. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Boot Loaders==<br /> <br /> :As mentioned, the primary task of boot loaders is to load the OS kernel into memory. They do secondary tasks as well. This includes passing info the kernel during system startup and booting other OS’s which may be on the HD.<br /> &lt;br /&gt;<br /> ::Using a boot loader to boot one of several OS’s is known as '''dual booting'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === GRUB===<br /> : The most common and only boot loader supported by Fedora 13.<br /> :3 Stages<br /> ::Stage 1 : Generally resides in MBR/GPT and points to Stage 1.5<br /> ::Stages 1.5 : Resides in the /boot/grub directory and loads the file support and loads Stage 2<br /> ::Stage 2 : Also, reside in the /boot/grub directory. This part actually performs the boot loader operations and displayed the graphic boot loader screen. <br /> <br /> ::: This can be configured by editing the config file found at '''(/boot/grub/grub.conf)'''.<br /> ::: This is read by Stage 2, which is located on the partition called GRUB root partition.<br /> ::: To be able to read the info in '''boot/grub/grub.conf''' you must first understand how GRUB refers to partitions on HDs. <br /> : The format used is : ('''hd&lt;drive#&gt;,&lt;partition#&gt;''')<br /> :Examples. <br /> ::'' (hd0,0)'' = 1st HD , 1st Partition<br /> ::''(hd0,1)'' = 1st HD , 2nd Partition<br /> ::''(hd1,2)'' = 2st HD , 3st Partition<br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command :<br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda<br /> <br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command line: <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda <br /> :You can also use : <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda1<br /> : This is used to install GRUB Stage 1 to the front of the 1st primary part of the HD. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === LILO===<br /> <br /> :This is the traditional boot loader for Linux.<br /> :: No longer supported. <br /> :: Often found on distros which require a smaller boot loader, as well as legacy distros. <br /> :Can reside on the first sector of an active Linux partition, as with GRUB can be found in the MBR/GPT of the HD. When this is the case, when the computer completes the POST and locates LILO, a LILO boot : prompt appears. <br /> :Hitting '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' will display a list of OSs to boot. <br /> <br /> ::: A list of common '''/etc/lilo.conf''' keywords used to edit that file can be found on on page 353 of your book.<br /> <br /> :As robust as LILO is from time to time you may encounter a problem during loading. When this happens you’ll get an error code representing the problem. <br /> <br /> :::A list of commmon LILO error messages can be found on page 354 of your book. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === Dual Booting Linux===<br /> <br /> :Dual booting is the ability to boot to one of several different Oss which may be available on your computer. Basically the ability to boot a Linux system on the same computer you might also want to use to boot Win 7..or XP. <br /> <br /> ::You can dual boot using either GRUB or LILO.<br /> <br /> ::The recommended procedure to install the other OS(s) prior to installing Linux.<br /> <br /> ::The reason behind this is that Linux will detect the other OS(s) and place the appropriate entry into the boot loader config file.<br /> <br /> :LILO cannot boot load the Window kernel directly. <br /> ::It needs the ''other='' ''''keyword'''' in the '''/etc/lilo.conf''' file to tell it where to find the boot loader for Windows. <br /> <br /> :By adding ''optional'' this prevents the GRUB boot loader from looking for a Linux kernel. This is also followed by the label keyword which just IDs the OS being loaded should you his the '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' key at the LILO prompt. <br /> <br /> '''Alternate way to Dual Boot'''<br /> :You can use a Windows Boot Loader (WBL) the same way you can use a Linux Boot Loader. <br /> <br /> :As it’s not designed to boot the Linux kernel, you need to go into the WBL and modify some some components <br /> <br /> :This can be a bit involved so easier to just install Linux after any other OSs you may also want to Dual Boot. <br /> :Page 358 details what you would need to do if this is how you want to dual boot. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Linux Initialization==<br /> <br /> :After the boot loader loads the Linux OS kernel into memory, the kernel resumes control and executes the first daemon, called ''init'', on the system.<br /> <br /> :: Remember: ''A daemon is a Linux system process that provides a certain service.'' <br /> <br /> :The init daemon uses configuration file, ''/etc/initab'' (short for “init table”) to determine the number of daemons that needs to be loaded on the system.<br /> <br /> :The init daemon is responsible for uploading daemons that are loaded into memory when the system is halted or rebooted.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runlevels===<br /> <br /> :The init daemon often has to manage several daemons at once.<br /> <br /> :Each category is categorized into Runlevels.<br /> <br /> :What is a runlevel? A runlevel defines the number and type of daemons that are loaded into memory and executed by the kernel on a particular system.<br /> <br /> :They are seven standard runlevels:<br /> :: '''0''' ... ''Transitional, Shuts down the system.'' <br /> :::''Should completely power down the system.''<br /> :: '''1''', '''s''', or '''S''' ... ''Single user mode.''<br /> :::''Used for low-level system maintenance impaired by normal system operation.''<br /> :: '''2''' ... ''Full muti-user mode with a graphical login.''<br /> :::''Used on Debian'' <br /> :: '''3''' ... ''Full multi-user mode with a console login.''<br /> :::''Used on Fedora, Mandriva, Red Hat, and most other distributions.'' <br /> :: '''4''' ... ''Undefined by default''<br /> :::''Used for customization''<br /> :: '''5''' ...'' Same as runlevel 3 with the addition of having X run with XDM (graphical) login.''<br /> :: '''6''' ...''Used to reboot the system.''<br /> :::''Also a transitional runlevel.''<br /> <br /> : '''To check out the current and/or previous runlevel.'''<br /> :: Type the runlevel command.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::N=nonexistent<br /> :::5= current runlevel.<br /> <br /> ::To change the runlevel from 5 to 1 type command<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 1<br /> <br /> ::If you’re in single mode and you want to change the runlevel from 1 back to 5. Type the following command.:<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 5<br /> <br /> ::The results are<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::S 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> ::Notice that the runlevel command displays the most current and most recent runlevel.<br /> :Unless you specify, the init daemon will run the default runlevel indicated in the '''/etc/inittab file'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runtime config scripts===<br /> <br /> :Scripts that run during the boot process. The purpose is to start daemons and bring the system to a useable state.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Configuring Daemon Setup===<br /> <br /> :Points to the appropriate scripts within the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. <br /> <br /> :Most Daemon scripts accept the arguments '''start, stop,''' and '''restart'''.<br /> <br /> :After system startup you can execute them directly from the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # ''/etc/rc.d/init.d/crond restart''<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :Or you can use the '''service command''' to start, stop or restart any daemons listed in the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. To restart the crond daemon type this.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # service cond restart<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To view and modify daemons that are started in each runlevel, you can use the '''chkconfig''' command.<br /> <br /> :The chkconfig command views and manipulates the appropriate runtime configuration files in the '''/etc/rc.d/rc*.d''' directories.<br /> <br /> :For example the following command indicates the ntpd daemon is not started in any runlevel,<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:off 4:off 5:off 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To configure the ntpd daemon to start in runlevels 3 and 5, and to verify the results, you could run the following commands.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – level 35 ntpd on'''<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:on 4:off 5:on 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> == X Windows System==<br /> :Components of the Linux GUI<br /> :Graphical Programs (X Clients)<br /> :Desktop environment<br /> :Window Manager<br /> :X Windows<br /> :Video Hardware<br /> <br /> === X Windows===<br /> :Developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1984<br /> :Maintained as Open Source Software by the X.Org Foundation<br /> :The freely available version used in may Linux distributions is called XFree86<br /> <br /> <br /> === Windows Manager and Desktop Environs===<br /> <br /> ::Window managers are used to modify the look and feel of X Windows. <br /> :: Common windows managers can be found on page 370 of your book. <br /> <br /> :'''K Desktop Environment (KDE)'''<br /> ::Released in 1996<br /> ::Uses K Window Manager (kwin) and Qt toolkit<br /> <br /> : '''GNOME'''<br /> :: Created in 1997<br /> :: Uses Metacity Window Manager and GTK+ toolkit<br /> <br /> <br /> === Starting and Stopping X Windows===<br /> <br /> :*GNOME Display Manager writes the chosen desktop environment in the Session menu to a '''.dmrc''' (display manager runtime configuration) file. '''/home/user1/.dmrc''' file<br /> <br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]# '''cat . dmrc''' <br /> :::[Desktop]<br /> :::Session=kde<br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]#_<br /> <br /> :*Root user in not allowed to log into GNOME Display Manager by default.<br /> ::'''/etc/pam.d/gdm''' and '''/etc/pam.d/gdm-password''' <br /> ::# auth required pam_succeed_if.so user !=root quiet<br /> :*GNOME Display Manager can be start manually using the gdm command<br /> <br /> <br /> == Configuring X Windows==<br /> <br /> :X.Org configuration file is /etc/X11/xorg.conf<br /> :XFree86 configuration file is /etc/X11/XF86Config <br /> :Mouse-test<br /> :System-config-keyboard command<br /> :System-config-display<br /> :Xvidtune to fine tune vertical and horizontal refresh rate.<br /> <br /> ----<br /> Information complied by Robert Klaers, LaPrice Ali, &amp; Sean Benecker</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=User_talk:Klae0010&diff=5342 2012-03-16T03:12:04Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Configuring X Windows */</p> <hr /> <div>Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> Subjects covered:<br /> == Boot Process== <br /> *Power on <br /> *System initializes<br /> *BIOS performs POST (power-on self test)<br /> *BIOS checks configuration and checks for boot devices and an OS to execute<br /> ** ''Typically floppy disks, CDs, DVDs, and USB devices are checked as they can contain installation media for an OS.'' <br /> ** ''If an OS isn’t found, the BIOS will check the MBR/GPT on the first HD.'' <br /> ** ''MBR/GPT may point to the partition where the boot loader found. If this is the case then the partition where the boot loader is found is called the active partition.'' <br /> <br /> ::: '''''See page 347 of the book for the flowchart of the boot process'''''<br /> <br /> :: ''Boot loader – main purpose is to load the OS kernel into memory.'' <br /> ::: '''NOTE:''' ''There can only be one active partition per HD.'' <br /> *Regardless of whether the boot loader is loaded from the MBR/GPT or the active partition the rest of the boot process continues as normal. Which is.. The kernel is executed and loaded into memory. <br /> *After loading the kernel, the boot loader becomes inactive. <br /> *Kernel continues by loading daemons into memory<br /> *Daemons are a system process which performs tasks such as printing scheduling, and OS maintenance. <br /> **The first daemon process is called the initialize (init) daemon. It’s responsible for loading all the other daemons on the system required to bring the system to a usable state where users can interact with it. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Boot Loaders==<br /> <br /> :As mentioned, the primary task of boot loaders is to load the OS kernel into memory. They do secondary tasks as well. This includes passing info the kernel during system startup and booting other OS’s which may be on the HD.<br /> &lt;br /&gt;<br /> ::Using a boot loader to boot one of several OS’s is known as '''dual booting'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === GRUB===<br /> : The most common and only boot loader supported by Fedora 13.<br /> :3 Stages<br /> ::Stage 1 : Generally resides in MBR/GPT and points to Stage 1.5<br /> ::Stages 1.5 : Resides in the /boot/grub directory and loads the file support and loads Stage 2<br /> ::Stage 2 : Also, reside in the /boot/grub directory. This part actually performs the boot loader operations and displayed the graphic boot loader screen. <br /> <br /> ::: This can be configured by editing the config file found at '''(/boot/grub/grub.conf)'''.<br /> ::: This is read by Stage 2, which is located on the partition called GRUB root partition.<br /> ::: To be able to read the info in '''boot/grub/grub.conf''' you must first understand how GRUB refers to partitions on HDs. <br /> : The format used is : ('''hd&lt;drive#&gt;,&lt;partition#&gt;''')<br /> :Examples. <br /> ::'' (hd0,0)'' = 1st HD , 1st Partition<br /> ::''(hd0,1)'' = 1st HD , 2nd Partition<br /> ::''(hd1,2)'' = 2st HD , 3st Partition<br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command :<br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda<br /> <br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command line: <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda <br /> :You can also use : <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda1<br /> : This is used to install GRUB Stage 1 to the front of the 1st primary part of the HD. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === LILO===<br /> <br /> :This is the traditional boot loader for Linux.<br /> :: No longer supported. <br /> :: Often found on distros which require a smaller boot loader, as well as legacy distros. <br /> :Can reside on the first sector of an active Linux partition, as with GRUB can be found in the MBR/GPT of the HD. When this is the case, when the computer completes the POST and locates LILO, a LILO boot : prompt appears. <br /> :Hitting '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' will display a list of OSs to boot. <br /> <br /> ::: A list of common '''/etc/lilo.conf''' keywords used to edit that file can be found on on page 353 of your book.<br /> <br /> :As robust as LILO is from time to time you may encounter a problem during loading. When this happens you’ll get an error code representing the problem. <br /> <br /> :::A list of commmon LILO error messages can be found on page 354 of your book. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === Dual Booting Linux===<br /> <br /> :Dual booting is the ability to boot to one of several different Oss which may be available on your computer. Basically the ability to boot a Linux system on the same computer you might also want to use to boot Win 7..or XP. <br /> <br /> ::You can dual boot using either GRUB or LILO.<br /> <br /> ::The recommended procedure to install the other OS(s) prior to installing Linux.<br /> <br /> ::The reason behind this is that Linux will detect the other OS(s) and place the appropriate entry into the boot loader config file.<br /> <br /> :LILO cannot boot load the Window kernel directly. <br /> ::It needs the ''other='' ''''keyword'''' in the '''/etc/lilo.conf''' file to tell it where to find the boot loader for Windows. <br /> <br /> :By adding ''optional'' this prevents the GRUB boot loader from looking for a Linux kernel. This is also followed by the label keyword which just IDs the OS being loaded should you his the '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' key at the LILO prompt. <br /> <br /> '''Alternate way to Dual Boot'''<br /> :You can use a Windows Boot Loader (WBL) the same way you can use a Linux Boot Loader. <br /> <br /> :As it’s not designed to boot the Linux kernel, you need to go into the WBL and modify some some components <br /> <br /> :This can be a bit involved so easier to just install Linux after any other OSs you may also want to Dual Boot. <br /> :Page 358 details what you would need to do if this is how you want to dual boot. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Linux Initialization==<br /> <br /> :After the boot loader loads the Linux OS kernel into memory, the kernel resumes control and executes the first daemon, called ''init'', on the system.<br /> <br /> :: Remember: ''A daemon is a Linux system process that provides a certain service.'' <br /> <br /> :The init daemon uses configuration file, ''/etc/initab'' (short for “init table”) to determine the number of daemons that needs to be loaded on the system.<br /> <br /> :The init daemon is responsible for uploading daemons that are loaded into memory when the system is halted or rebooted.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runlevels===<br /> <br /> :The init daemon often has to manage several daemons at once.<br /> <br /> :Each category is categorized into Runlevels.<br /> <br /> :What is a runlevel? A runlevel defines the number and type of daemons that are loaded into memory and executed by the kernel on a particular system.<br /> <br /> :They are seven standard runlevels:<br /> :: '''0''' ... ''Transitional, Shuts down the system.'' <br /> :::''Should completely power down the system.''<br /> :: '''1''', '''s''', or '''S''' ... ''Single user mode.''<br /> :::''Used for low-level system maintenance impaired by normal system operation.''<br /> :: '''2''' ... ''Full muti-user mode with a graphical login.''<br /> :::''Used on Debian'' <br /> :: '''3''' ... ''Full multi-user mode with a console login.''<br /> :::''Used on Fedora, Mandriva, Red Hat, and most other distributions.'' <br /> :: '''4''' ... ''Undefined by default''<br /> :::''Used for customization''<br /> :: '''5''' ...'' Same as runlevel 3 with the addition of having X run with XDM (graphical) login.''<br /> :: '''6''' ...''Used to reboot the system.''<br /> :::''Also a transitional runlevel.''<br /> <br /> : '''To check out the current and/or previous runlevel.'''<br /> :: Type the runlevel command.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::N=nonexistent<br /> :::5= current runlevel.<br /> <br /> ::To change the runlevel from 5 to 1 type command<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 1<br /> <br /> ::If you’re in single mode and you want to change the runlevel from 1 back to 5. Type the following command.:<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 5<br /> <br /> ::The results are<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::S 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> ::Notice that the runlevel command displays the most current and most recent runlevel.<br /> :Unless you specify, the init daemon will run the default runlevel indicated in the '''/etc/inittab file'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runtime config scripts===<br /> <br /> :Scripts that run during the boot process. The purpose is to start daemons and bring the system to a useable state.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Configuring Daemon Setup===<br /> <br /> :Points to the appropriate scripts within the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. <br /> <br /> :Most Daemon scripts accept the arguments '''start, stop,''' and '''restart'''.<br /> <br /> :After system startup you can execute them directly from the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # ''/etc/rc.d/init.d/crond restart''<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :Or you can use the '''service command''' to start, stop or restart any daemons listed in the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. To restart the crond daemon type this.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # service cond restart<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To view and modify daemons that are started in each runlevel, you can use the '''chkconfig''' command.<br /> <br /> :The chkconfig command views and manipulates the appropriate runtime configuration files in the '''/etc/rc.d/rc*.d''' directories.<br /> <br /> :For example the following command indicates the ntpd daemon is not started in any runlevel,<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:off 4:off 5:off 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To configure the ntpd daemon to start in runlevels 3 and 5, and to verify the results, you could run the following commands.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – level 35 ntpd on'''<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:on 4:off 5:on 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> == X Windows System==<br /> :Components of the Linux GUI<br /> :Graphical Programs (X Clients)<br /> :Desktop environment<br /> :Window Manager<br /> :X Windows<br /> :Video Hardware<br /> <br /> === X Windows===<br /> :Developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1984<br /> :Maintained as Open Source Software by the X.Org Foundation<br /> :The freely available version used in may Linux distributions is called XFree86<br /> <br /> <br /> === Windows Manager and Desktop Environs===<br /> <br /> ::Window managers are used to modify the look and feel of X Windows. <br /> :: Common windows managers can be found on page 370 of your book. <br /> <br /> :'''K Desktop Environment (KDE)'''<br /> ::Released in 1996<br /> ::Uses K Window Manager (kwin) and Qt toolkit<br /> <br /> : '''GNOME'''<br /> :: Created in 1997<br /> :: Uses Metacity Window Manager and GTK+ toolkit<br /> <br /> <br /> === Starting and Stopping X Windows===<br /> <br /> :*GNOME Display Manager writes the chosen desktop environment in the Session menu to a '''.dmrc''' (display manager runtime configuration) file. '''/home/user1/.dmrc''' file<br /> <br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]# '''cat . dmrc''' <br /> :::[Desktop]<br /> :::Session=kde<br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]#_<br /> <br /> :*Root user in not allowed to log into GNOME Display Manager by default.<br /> ::'''/etc/pam.d/gdm''' and '''/etc/pam.d/gdm-password''' <br /> ::# auth required pam_succeed_if.so user !=root quiet<br /> :*GNOME Display Manager can be start manually using the gdm command<br /> <br /> <br /> == Configuring X Windows==<br /> <br /> :X.Org configuration file is /etc/X11/xorg.conf<br /> :XFree86 configuration file is /etc/X11/XF86Config <br /> :Mouse-test<br /> :System-config-keyboard command<br /> :System-config-display<br /> :Xvidtune to fine tune vertical and horizontal refresh rate.<br /> <br /> ----<br /> Information complied by Robert Klaers, Sean Benecker ,LaPrice Ali</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=User_talk:Klae0010&diff=5341 2012-03-16T03:10:29Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Configuring X Windows */</p> <hr /> <div>Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> Subjects covered:<br /> == Boot Process== <br /> *Power on <br /> *System initializes<br /> *BIOS performs POST (power-on self test)<br /> *BIOS checks configuration and checks for boot devices and an OS to execute<br /> ** ''Typically floppy disks, CDs, DVDs, and USB devices are checked as they can contain installation media for an OS.'' <br /> ** ''If an OS isn’t found, the BIOS will check the MBR/GPT on the first HD.'' <br /> ** ''MBR/GPT may point to the partition where the boot loader found. If this is the case then the partition where the boot loader is found is called the active partition.'' <br /> <br /> ::: '''''See page 347 of the book for the flowchart of the boot process'''''<br /> <br /> :: ''Boot loader – main purpose is to load the OS kernel into memory.'' <br /> ::: '''NOTE:''' ''There can only be one active partition per HD.'' <br /> *Regardless of whether the boot loader is loaded from the MBR/GPT or the active partition the rest of the boot process continues as normal. Which is.. The kernel is executed and loaded into memory. <br /> *After loading the kernel, the boot loader becomes inactive. <br /> *Kernel continues by loading daemons into memory<br /> *Daemons are a system process which performs tasks such as printing scheduling, and OS maintenance. <br /> **The first daemon process is called the initialize (init) daemon. It’s responsible for loading all the other daemons on the system required to bring the system to a usable state where users can interact with it. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Boot Loaders==<br /> <br /> :As mentioned, the primary task of boot loaders is to load the OS kernel into memory. They do secondary tasks as well. This includes passing info the kernel during system startup and booting other OS’s which may be on the HD.<br /> &lt;br /&gt;<br /> ::Using a boot loader to boot one of several OS’s is known as '''dual booting'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === GRUB===<br /> : The most common and only boot loader supported by Fedora 13.<br /> :3 Stages<br /> ::Stage 1 : Generally resides in MBR/GPT and points to Stage 1.5<br /> ::Stages 1.5 : Resides in the /boot/grub directory and loads the file support and loads Stage 2<br /> ::Stage 2 : Also, reside in the /boot/grub directory. This part actually performs the boot loader operations and displayed the graphic boot loader screen. <br /> <br /> ::: This can be configured by editing the config file found at '''(/boot/grub/grub.conf)'''.<br /> ::: This is read by Stage 2, which is located on the partition called GRUB root partition.<br /> ::: To be able to read the info in '''boot/grub/grub.conf''' you must first understand how GRUB refers to partitions on HDs. <br /> : The format used is : ('''hd&lt;drive#&gt;,&lt;partition#&gt;''')<br /> :Examples. <br /> ::'' (hd0,0)'' = 1st HD , 1st Partition<br /> ::''(hd0,1)'' = 1st HD , 2nd Partition<br /> ::''(hd1,2)'' = 2st HD , 3st Partition<br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command :<br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda<br /> <br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command line: <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda <br /> :You can also use : <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda1<br /> : This is used to install GRUB Stage 1 to the front of the 1st primary part of the HD. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === LILO===<br /> <br /> :This is the traditional boot loader for Linux.<br /> :: No longer supported. <br /> :: Often found on distros which require a smaller boot loader, as well as legacy distros. <br /> :Can reside on the first sector of an active Linux partition, as with GRUB can be found in the MBR/GPT of the HD. When this is the case, when the computer completes the POST and locates LILO, a LILO boot : prompt appears. <br /> :Hitting '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' will display a list of OSs to boot. <br /> <br /> ::: A list of common '''/etc/lilo.conf''' keywords used to edit that file can be found on on page 353 of your book.<br /> <br /> :As robust as LILO is from time to time you may encounter a problem during loading. When this happens you’ll get an error code representing the problem. <br /> <br /> :::A list of commmon LILO error messages can be found on page 354 of your book. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === Dual Booting Linux===<br /> <br /> :Dual booting is the ability to boot to one of several different Oss which may be available on your computer. Basically the ability to boot a Linux system on the same computer you might also want to use to boot Win 7..or XP. <br /> <br /> ::You can dual boot using either GRUB or LILO.<br /> <br /> ::The recommended procedure to install the other OS(s) prior to installing Linux.<br /> <br /> ::The reason behind this is that Linux will detect the other OS(s) and place the appropriate entry into the boot loader config file.<br /> <br /> :LILO cannot boot load the Window kernel directly. <br /> ::It needs the ''other='' ''''keyword'''' in the '''/etc/lilo.conf''' file to tell it where to find the boot loader for Windows. <br /> <br /> :By adding ''optional'' this prevents the GRUB boot loader from looking for a Linux kernel. This is also followed by the label keyword which just IDs the OS being loaded should you his the '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' key at the LILO prompt. <br /> <br /> '''Alternate way to Dual Boot'''<br /> :You can use a Windows Boot Loader (WBL) the same way you can use a Linux Boot Loader. <br /> <br /> :As it’s not designed to boot the Linux kernel, you need to go into the WBL and modify some some components <br /> <br /> :This can be a bit involved so easier to just install Linux after any other OSs you may also want to Dual Boot. <br /> :Page 358 details what you would need to do if this is how you want to dual boot. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Linux Initialization==<br /> <br /> :After the boot loader loads the Linux OS kernel into memory, the kernel resumes control and executes the first daemon, called ''init'', on the system.<br /> <br /> :: Remember: ''A daemon is a Linux system process that provides a certain service.'' <br /> <br /> :The init daemon uses configuration file, ''/etc/initab'' (short for “init table”) to determine the number of daemons that needs to be loaded on the system.<br /> <br /> :The init daemon is responsible for uploading daemons that are loaded into memory when the system is halted or rebooted.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runlevels===<br /> <br /> :The init daemon often has to manage several daemons at once.<br /> <br /> :Each category is categorized into Runlevels.<br /> <br /> :What is a runlevel? A runlevel defines the number and type of daemons that are loaded into memory and executed by the kernel on a particular system.<br /> <br /> :They are seven standard runlevels:<br /> :: '''0''' ... ''Transitional, Shuts down the system.'' <br /> :::''Should completely power down the system.''<br /> :: '''1''', '''s''', or '''S''' ... ''Single user mode.''<br /> :::''Used for low-level system maintenance impaired by normal system operation.''<br /> :: '''2''' ... ''Full muti-user mode with a graphical login.''<br /> :::''Used on Debian'' <br /> :: '''3''' ... ''Full multi-user mode with a console login.''<br /> :::''Used on Fedora, Mandriva, Red Hat, and most other distributions.'' <br /> :: '''4''' ... ''Undefined by default''<br /> :::''Used for customization''<br /> :: '''5''' ...'' Same as runlevel 3 with the addition of having X run with XDM (graphical) login.''<br /> :: '''6''' ...''Used to reboot the system.''<br /> :::''Also a transitional runlevel.''<br /> <br /> : '''To check out the current and/or previous runlevel.'''<br /> :: Type the runlevel command.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::N=nonexistent<br /> :::5= current runlevel.<br /> <br /> ::To change the runlevel from 5 to 1 type command<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 1<br /> <br /> ::If you’re in single mode and you want to change the runlevel from 1 back to 5. Type the following command.:<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 5<br /> <br /> ::The results are<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::S 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> ::Notice that the runlevel command displays the most current and most recent runlevel.<br /> :Unless you specify, the init daemon will run the default runlevel indicated in the '''/etc/inittab file'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runtime config scripts===<br /> <br /> :Scripts that run during the boot process. The purpose is to start daemons and bring the system to a useable state.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Configuring Daemon Setup===<br /> <br /> :Points to the appropriate scripts within the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. <br /> <br /> :Most Daemon scripts accept the arguments '''start, stop,''' and '''restart'''.<br /> <br /> :After system startup you can execute them directly from the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # ''/etc/rc.d/init.d/crond restart''<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :Or you can use the '''service command''' to start, stop or restart any daemons listed in the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. To restart the crond daemon type this.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # service cond restart<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To view and modify daemons that are started in each runlevel, you can use the '''chkconfig''' command.<br /> <br /> :The chkconfig command views and manipulates the appropriate runtime configuration files in the '''/etc/rc.d/rc*.d''' directories.<br /> <br /> :For example the following command indicates the ntpd daemon is not started in any runlevel,<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:off 4:off 5:off 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To configure the ntpd daemon to start in runlevels 3 and 5, and to verify the results, you could run the following commands.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – level 35 ntpd on'''<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:on 4:off 5:on 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> == X Windows System==<br /> :Components of the Linux GUI<br /> :Graphical Programs (X Clients)<br /> :Desktop environment<br /> :Window Manager<br /> :X Windows<br /> :Video Hardware<br /> <br /> === X Windows===<br /> :Developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1984<br /> :Maintained as Open Source Software by the X.Org Foundation<br /> :The freely available version used in may Linux distributions is called XFree86<br /> <br /> <br /> === Windows Manager and Desktop Environs===<br /> <br /> ::Window managers are used to modify the look and feel of X Windows. <br /> :: Common windows managers can be found on page 370 of your book. <br /> <br /> :'''K Desktop Environment (KDE)'''<br /> ::Released in 1996<br /> ::Uses K Window Manager (kwin) and Qt toolkit<br /> <br /> : '''GNOME'''<br /> :: Created in 1997<br /> :: Uses Metacity Window Manager and GTK+ toolkit<br /> <br /> <br /> === Starting and Stopping X Windows===<br /> <br /> :*GNOME Display Manager writes the chosen desktop environment in the Session menu to a '''.dmrc''' (display manager runtime configuration) file. '''/home/user1/.dmrc''' file<br /> <br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]# '''cat . dmrc''' <br /> :::[Desktop]<br /> :::Session=kde<br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]#_<br /> <br /> :*Root user in not allowed to log into GNOME Display Manager by default.<br /> ::'''/etc/pam.d/gdm''' and '''/etc/pam.d/gdm-password''' <br /> ::# auth required pam_succeed_if.so user !=root quiet<br /> :*GNOME Display Manager can be start manually using the gdm command<br /> <br /> <br /> == Configuring X Windows==<br /> <br /> :X.Org configuration file is /etc/X11/xorg.conf<br /> :XFree86 configuration file is /etc/X11/XF86Config <br /> :Mouse-test<br /> :System-config-keyboard command<br /> :System-config-display<br /> :Xvidtune to fine tune vertical and horizontal refresh rate.<br /> <br /> ----<br /> Information complied by Robert Klaers, Sean ,Ali</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=User_talk:Klae0010&diff=5340 2012-03-16T03:05:27Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Configuring X Windows */</p> <hr /> <div>Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> Subjects covered:<br /> == Boot Process== <br /> *Power on <br /> *System initializes<br /> *BIOS performs POST (power-on self test)<br /> *BIOS checks configuration and checks for boot devices and an OS to execute<br /> ** ''Typically floppy disks, CDs, DVDs, and USB devices are checked as they can contain installation media for an OS.'' <br /> ** ''If an OS isn’t found, the BIOS will check the MBR/GPT on the first HD.'' <br /> ** ''MBR/GPT may point to the partition where the boot loader found. If this is the case then the partition where the boot loader is found is called the active partition.'' <br /> <br /> ::: '''''See page 347 of the book for the flowchart of the boot process'''''<br /> <br /> :: ''Boot loader – main purpose is to load the OS kernel into memory.'' <br /> ::: '''NOTE:''' ''There can only be one active partition per HD.'' <br /> *Regardless of whether the boot loader is loaded from the MBR/GPT or the active partition the rest of the boot process continues as normal. Which is.. The kernel is executed and loaded into memory. <br /> *After loading the kernel, the boot loader becomes inactive. <br /> *Kernel continues by loading daemons into memory<br /> *Daemons are a system process which performs tasks such as printing scheduling, and OS maintenance. <br /> **The first daemon process is called the initialize (init) daemon. It’s responsible for loading all the other daemons on the system required to bring the system to a usable state where users can interact with it. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Boot Loaders==<br /> <br /> :As mentioned, the primary task of boot loaders is to load the OS kernel into memory. They do secondary tasks as well. This includes passing info the kernel during system startup and booting other OS’s which may be on the HD.<br /> &lt;br /&gt;<br /> ::Using a boot loader to boot one of several OS’s is known as '''dual booting'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === GRUB===<br /> : The most common and only boot loader supported by Fedora 13.<br /> :3 Stages<br /> ::Stage 1 : Generally resides in MBR/GPT and points to Stage 1.5<br /> ::Stages 1.5 : Resides in the /boot/grub directory and loads the file support and loads Stage 2<br /> ::Stage 2 : Also, reside in the /boot/grub directory. This part actually performs the boot loader operations and displayed the graphic boot loader screen. <br /> <br /> ::: This can be configured by editing the config file found at '''(/boot/grub/grub.conf)'''.<br /> ::: This is read by Stage 2, which is located on the partition called GRUB root partition.<br /> ::: To be able to read the info in '''boot/grub/grub.conf''' you must first understand how GRUB refers to partitions on HDs. <br /> : The format used is : ('''hd&lt;drive#&gt;,&lt;partition#&gt;''')<br /> :Examples. <br /> ::'' (hd0,0)'' = 1st HD , 1st Partition<br /> ::''(hd0,1)'' = 1st HD , 2nd Partition<br /> ::''(hd1,2)'' = 2st HD , 3st Partition<br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command :<br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda<br /> <br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command line: <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda <br /> :You can also use : <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda1<br /> : This is used to install GRUB Stage 1 to the front of the 1st primary part of the HD. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === LILO===<br /> <br /> :This is the traditional boot loader for Linux.<br /> :: No longer supported. <br /> :: Often found on distros which require a smaller boot loader, as well as legacy distros. <br /> :Can reside on the first sector of an active Linux partition, as with GRUB can be found in the MBR/GPT of the HD. When this is the case, when the computer completes the POST and locates LILO, a LILO boot : prompt appears. <br /> :Hitting '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' will display a list of OSs to boot. <br /> <br /> ::: A list of common '''/etc/lilo.conf''' keywords used to edit that file can be found on on page 353 of your book.<br /> <br /> :As robust as LILO is from time to time you may encounter a problem during loading. When this happens you’ll get an error code representing the problem. <br /> <br /> :::A list of commmon LILO error messages can be found on page 354 of your book. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === Dual Booting Linux===<br /> <br /> :Dual booting is the ability to boot to one of several different Oss which may be available on your computer. Basically the ability to boot a Linux system on the same computer you might also want to use to boot Win 7..or XP. <br /> <br /> ::You can dual boot using either GRUB or LILO.<br /> <br /> ::The recommended procedure to install the other OS(s) prior to installing Linux.<br /> <br /> ::The reason behind this is that Linux will detect the other OS(s) and place the appropriate entry into the boot loader config file.<br /> <br /> :LILO cannot boot load the Window kernel directly. <br /> ::It needs the ''other='' ''''keyword'''' in the '''/etc/lilo.conf''' file to tell it where to find the boot loader for Windows. <br /> <br /> :By adding ''optional'' this prevents the GRUB boot loader from looking for a Linux kernel. This is also followed by the label keyword which just IDs the OS being loaded should you his the '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' key at the LILO prompt. <br /> <br /> '''Alternate way to Dual Boot'''<br /> :You can use a Windows Boot Loader (WBL) the same way you can use a Linux Boot Loader. <br /> <br /> :As it’s not designed to boot the Linux kernel, you need to go into the WBL and modify some some components <br /> <br /> :This can be a bit involved so easier to just install Linux after any other OSs you may also want to Dual Boot. <br /> :Page 358 details what you would need to do if this is how you want to dual boot. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Linux Initialization==<br /> <br /> :After the boot loader loads the Linux OS kernel into memory, the kernel resumes control and executes the first daemon, called ''init'', on the system.<br /> <br /> :: Remember: ''A daemon is a Linux system process that provides a certain service.'' <br /> <br /> :The init daemon uses configuration file, ''/etc/initab'' (short for “init table”) to determine the number of daemons that needs to be loaded on the system.<br /> <br /> :The init daemon is responsible for uploading daemons that are loaded into memory when the system is halted or rebooted.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runlevels===<br /> <br /> :The init daemon often has to manage several daemons at once.<br /> <br /> :Each category is categorized into Runlevels.<br /> <br /> :What is a runlevel? A runlevel defines the number and type of daemons that are loaded into memory and executed by the kernel on a particular system.<br /> <br /> :They are seven standard runlevels:<br /> :: '''0''' ... ''Transitional, Shuts down the system.'' <br /> :::''Should completely power down the system.''<br /> :: '''1''', '''s''', or '''S''' ... ''Single user mode.''<br /> :::''Used for low-level system maintenance impaired by normal system operation.''<br /> :: '''2''' ... ''Full muti-user mode with a graphical login.''<br /> :::''Used on Debian'' <br /> :: '''3''' ... ''Full multi-user mode with a console login.''<br /> :::''Used on Fedora, Mandriva, Red Hat, and most other distributions.'' <br /> :: '''4''' ... ''Undefined by default''<br /> :::''Used for customization''<br /> :: '''5''' ...'' Same as runlevel 3 with the addition of having X run with XDM (graphical) login.''<br /> :: '''6''' ...''Used to reboot the system.''<br /> :::''Also a transitional runlevel.''<br /> <br /> : '''To check out the current and/or previous runlevel.'''<br /> :: Type the runlevel command.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::N=nonexistent<br /> :::5= current runlevel.<br /> <br /> ::To change the runlevel from 5 to 1 type command<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 1<br /> <br /> ::If you’re in single mode and you want to change the runlevel from 1 back to 5. Type the following command.:<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 5<br /> <br /> ::The results are<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::S 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> ::Notice that the runlevel command displays the most current and most recent runlevel.<br /> :Unless you specify, the init daemon will run the default runlevel indicated in the '''/etc/inittab file'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runtime config scripts===<br /> <br /> :Scripts that run during the boot process. The purpose is to start daemons and bring the system to a useable state.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Configuring Daemon Setup===<br /> <br /> :Points to the appropriate scripts within the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. <br /> <br /> :Most Daemon scripts accept the arguments '''start, stop,''' and '''restart'''.<br /> <br /> :After system startup you can execute them directly from the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # ''/etc/rc.d/init.d/crond restart''<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :Or you can use the '''service command''' to start, stop or restart any daemons listed in the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. To restart the crond daemon type this.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # service cond restart<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To view and modify daemons that are started in each runlevel, you can use the '''chkconfig''' command.<br /> <br /> :The chkconfig command views and manipulates the appropriate runtime configuration files in the '''/etc/rc.d/rc*.d''' directories.<br /> <br /> :For example the following command indicates the ntpd daemon is not started in any runlevel,<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:off 4:off 5:off 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To configure the ntpd daemon to start in runlevels 3 and 5, and to verify the results, you could run the following commands.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – level 35 ntpd on'''<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:on 4:off 5:on 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> == X Windows System==<br /> :Components of the Linux GUI<br /> :Graphical Programs (X Clients)<br /> :Desktop environment<br /> :Window Manager<br /> :X Windows<br /> :Video Hardware<br /> <br /> === X Windows===<br /> :Developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1984<br /> :Maintained as Open Source Software by the X.Org Foundation<br /> :The freely available version used in may Linux distributions is called XFree86<br /> <br /> <br /> === Windows Manager and Desktop Environs===<br /> <br /> ::Window managers are used to modify the look and feel of X Windows. <br /> :: Common windows managers can be found on page 370 of your book. <br /> <br /> :'''K Desktop Environment (KDE)'''<br /> ::Released in 1996<br /> ::Uses K Window Manager (kwin) and Qt toolkit<br /> <br /> : '''GNOME'''<br /> :: Created in 1997<br /> :: Uses Metacity Window Manager and GTK+ toolkit<br /> <br /> <br /> === Starting and Stopping X Windows===<br /> <br /> :*GNOME Display Manager writes the chosen desktop environment in the Session menu to a '''.dmrc''' (display manager runtime configuration) file. '''/home/user1/.dmrc''' file<br /> <br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]# '''cat . dmrc''' <br /> :::[Desktop]<br /> :::Session=kde<br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]#_<br /> <br /> :*Root user in not allowed to log into GNOME Display Manager by default.<br /> ::'''/etc/pam.d/gdm''' and '''/etc/pam.d/gdm-password''' <br /> ::# auth required pam_succeed_if.so user !=root quiet<br /> :*GNOME Display Manager can be start manually using the gdm command<br /> <br /> <br /> == Configuring X Windows==<br /> <br /> :X.Org configuration file is /etc/X11/xorg.conf<br /> :XFree86 configuration file is /etc/X11/XF86Config <br /> :Mouse-test<br /> :System-config-keyboard command<br /> :System-config-display<br /> :Xvidtune to fine tune vertical and horizontal refresh rate.<br /> <br /> ----</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=User_talk:Klae0010&diff=5339 2012-03-16T03:04:55Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Configuring X Windows */</p> <hr /> <div>Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> Subjects covered:<br /> == Boot Process== <br /> *Power on <br /> *System initializes<br /> *BIOS performs POST (power-on self test)<br /> *BIOS checks configuration and checks for boot devices and an OS to execute<br /> ** ''Typically floppy disks, CDs, DVDs, and USB devices are checked as they can contain installation media for an OS.'' <br /> ** ''If an OS isn’t found, the BIOS will check the MBR/GPT on the first HD.'' <br /> ** ''MBR/GPT may point to the partition where the boot loader found. If this is the case then the partition where the boot loader is found is called the active partition.'' <br /> <br /> ::: '''''See page 347 of the book for the flowchart of the boot process'''''<br /> <br /> :: ''Boot loader – main purpose is to load the OS kernel into memory.'' <br /> ::: '''NOTE:''' ''There can only be one active partition per HD.'' <br /> *Regardless of whether the boot loader is loaded from the MBR/GPT or the active partition the rest of the boot process continues as normal. Which is.. The kernel is executed and loaded into memory. <br /> *After loading the kernel, the boot loader becomes inactive. <br /> *Kernel continues by loading daemons into memory<br /> *Daemons are a system process which performs tasks such as printing scheduling, and OS maintenance. <br /> **The first daemon process is called the initialize (init) daemon. It’s responsible for loading all the other daemons on the system required to bring the system to a usable state where users can interact with it. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Boot Loaders==<br /> <br /> :As mentioned, the primary task of boot loaders is to load the OS kernel into memory. They do secondary tasks as well. This includes passing info the kernel during system startup and booting other OS’s which may be on the HD.<br /> &lt;br /&gt;<br /> ::Using a boot loader to boot one of several OS’s is known as '''dual booting'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === GRUB===<br /> : The most common and only boot loader supported by Fedora 13.<br /> :3 Stages<br /> ::Stage 1 : Generally resides in MBR/GPT and points to Stage 1.5<br /> ::Stages 1.5 : Resides in the /boot/grub directory and loads the file support and loads Stage 2<br /> ::Stage 2 : Also, reside in the /boot/grub directory. This part actually performs the boot loader operations and displayed the graphic boot loader screen. <br /> <br /> ::: This can be configured by editing the config file found at '''(/boot/grub/grub.conf)'''.<br /> ::: This is read by Stage 2, which is located on the partition called GRUB root partition.<br /> ::: To be able to read the info in '''boot/grub/grub.conf''' you must first understand how GRUB refers to partitions on HDs. <br /> : The format used is : ('''hd&lt;drive#&gt;,&lt;partition#&gt;''')<br /> :Examples. <br /> ::'' (hd0,0)'' = 1st HD , 1st Partition<br /> ::''(hd0,1)'' = 1st HD , 2nd Partition<br /> ::''(hd1,2)'' = 2st HD , 3st Partition<br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command :<br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda<br /> <br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command line: <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda <br /> :You can also use : <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda1<br /> : This is used to install GRUB Stage 1 to the front of the 1st primary part of the HD. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === LILO===<br /> <br /> :This is the traditional boot loader for Linux.<br /> :: No longer supported. <br /> :: Often found on distros which require a smaller boot loader, as well as legacy distros. <br /> :Can reside on the first sector of an active Linux partition, as with GRUB can be found in the MBR/GPT of the HD. When this is the case, when the computer completes the POST and locates LILO, a LILO boot : prompt appears. <br /> :Hitting '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' will display a list of OSs to boot. <br /> <br /> ::: A list of common '''/etc/lilo.conf''' keywords used to edit that file can be found on on page 353 of your book.<br /> <br /> :As robust as LILO is from time to time you may encounter a problem during loading. When this happens you’ll get an error code representing the problem. <br /> <br /> :::A list of commmon LILO error messages can be found on page 354 of your book. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === Dual Booting Linux===<br /> <br /> :Dual booting is the ability to boot to one of several different Oss which may be available on your computer. Basically the ability to boot a Linux system on the same computer you might also want to use to boot Win 7..or XP. <br /> <br /> ::You can dual boot using either GRUB or LILO.<br /> <br /> ::The recommended procedure to install the other OS(s) prior to installing Linux.<br /> <br /> ::The reason behind this is that Linux will detect the other OS(s) and place the appropriate entry into the boot loader config file.<br /> <br /> :LILO cannot boot load the Window kernel directly. <br /> ::It needs the ''other='' ''''keyword'''' in the '''/etc/lilo.conf''' file to tell it where to find the boot loader for Windows. <br /> <br /> :By adding ''optional'' this prevents the GRUB boot loader from looking for a Linux kernel. This is also followed by the label keyword which just IDs the OS being loaded should you his the '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' key at the LILO prompt. <br /> <br /> '''Alternate way to Dual Boot'''<br /> :You can use a Windows Boot Loader (WBL) the same way you can use a Linux Boot Loader. <br /> <br /> :As it’s not designed to boot the Linux kernel, you need to go into the WBL and modify some some components <br /> <br /> :This can be a bit involved so easier to just install Linux after any other OSs you may also want to Dual Boot. <br /> :Page 358 details what you would need to do if this is how you want to dual boot. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Linux Initialization==<br /> <br /> :After the boot loader loads the Linux OS kernel into memory, the kernel resumes control and executes the first daemon, called ''init'', on the system.<br /> <br /> :: Remember: ''A daemon is a Linux system process that provides a certain service.'' <br /> <br /> :The init daemon uses configuration file, ''/etc/initab'' (short for “init table”) to determine the number of daemons that needs to be loaded on the system.<br /> <br /> :The init daemon is responsible for uploading daemons that are loaded into memory when the system is halted or rebooted.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runlevels===<br /> <br /> :The init daemon often has to manage several daemons at once.<br /> <br /> :Each category is categorized into Runlevels.<br /> <br /> :What is a runlevel? A runlevel defines the number and type of daemons that are loaded into memory and executed by the kernel on a particular system.<br /> <br /> :They are seven standard runlevels:<br /> :: '''0''' ... ''Transitional, Shuts down the system.'' <br /> :::''Should completely power down the system.''<br /> :: '''1''', '''s''', or '''S''' ... ''Single user mode.''<br /> :::''Used for low-level system maintenance impaired by normal system operation.''<br /> :: '''2''' ... ''Full muti-user mode with a graphical login.''<br /> :::''Used on Debian'' <br /> :: '''3''' ... ''Full multi-user mode with a console login.''<br /> :::''Used on Fedora, Mandriva, Red Hat, and most other distributions.'' <br /> :: '''4''' ... ''Undefined by default''<br /> :::''Used for customization''<br /> :: '''5''' ...'' Same as runlevel 3 with the addition of having X run with XDM (graphical) login.''<br /> :: '''6''' ...''Used to reboot the system.''<br /> :::''Also a transitional runlevel.''<br /> <br /> : '''To check out the current and/or previous runlevel.'''<br /> :: Type the runlevel command.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::N=nonexistent<br /> :::5= current runlevel.<br /> <br /> ::To change the runlevel from 5 to 1 type command<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 1<br /> <br /> ::If you’re in single mode and you want to change the runlevel from 1 back to 5. Type the following command.:<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 5<br /> <br /> ::The results are<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::S 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> ::Notice that the runlevel command displays the most current and most recent runlevel.<br /> :Unless you specify, the init daemon will run the default runlevel indicated in the '''/etc/inittab file'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runtime config scripts===<br /> <br /> :Scripts that run during the boot process. The purpose is to start daemons and bring the system to a useable state.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Configuring Daemon Setup===<br /> <br /> :Points to the appropriate scripts within the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. <br /> <br /> :Most Daemon scripts accept the arguments '''start, stop,''' and '''restart'''.<br /> <br /> :After system startup you can execute them directly from the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # ''/etc/rc.d/init.d/crond restart''<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :Or you can use the '''service command''' to start, stop or restart any daemons listed in the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. To restart the crond daemon type this.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # service cond restart<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To view and modify daemons that are started in each runlevel, you can use the '''chkconfig''' command.<br /> <br /> :The chkconfig command views and manipulates the appropriate runtime configuration files in the '''/etc/rc.d/rc*.d''' directories.<br /> <br /> :For example the following command indicates the ntpd daemon is not started in any runlevel,<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:off 4:off 5:off 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To configure the ntpd daemon to start in runlevels 3 and 5, and to verify the results, you could run the following commands.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – level 35 ntpd on'''<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:on 4:off 5:on 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> == X Windows System==<br /> :Components of the Linux GUI<br /> :Graphical Programs (X Clients)<br /> :Desktop environment<br /> :Window Manager<br /> :X Windows<br /> :Video Hardware<br /> <br /> === X Windows===<br /> :Developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1984<br /> :Maintained as Open Source Software by the X.Org Foundation<br /> :The freely available version used in may Linux distributions is called XFree86<br /> <br /> <br /> === Windows Manager and Desktop Environs===<br /> <br /> ::Window managers are used to modify the look and feel of X Windows. <br /> :: Common windows managers can be found on page 370 of your book. <br /> <br /> :'''K Desktop Environment (KDE)'''<br /> ::Released in 1996<br /> ::Uses K Window Manager (kwin) and Qt toolkit<br /> <br /> : '''GNOME'''<br /> :: Created in 1997<br /> :: Uses Metacity Window Manager and GTK+ toolkit<br /> <br /> <br /> === Starting and Stopping X Windows===<br /> <br /> :*GNOME Display Manager writes the chosen desktop environment in the Session menu to a '''.dmrc''' (display manager runtime configuration) file. '''/home/user1/.dmrc''' file<br /> <br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]# '''cat . dmrc''' <br /> :::[Desktop]<br /> :::Session=kde<br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]#_<br /> <br /> :*Root user in not allowed to log into GNOME Display Manager by default.<br /> ::'''/etc/pam.d/gdm''' and '''/etc/pam.d/gdm-password''' <br /> ::# auth required pam_succeed_if.so user !=root quiet<br /> :*GNOME Display Manager can be start manually using the gdm command<br /> <br /> <br /> == Configuring X Windows==<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> :X.Org configuration file is /etc/X11/xorg.conf<br /> :XFree86 configuration file is /etc/X11/XF86Config <br /> :Mouse-test<br /> :System-config-keyboard command<br /> :System-config-display<br /> :Xvidtune to fine tune vertical and horizontal refresh rate.</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=User_talk:Klae0010&diff=5338 2012-03-16T03:03:52Z

<p>Klae0010: Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows</p> <hr /> <div>Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> Subjects covered:<br /> == Boot Process== <br /> *Power on <br /> *System initializes<br /> *BIOS performs POST (power-on self test)<br /> *BIOS checks configuration and checks for boot devices and an OS to execute<br /> ** ''Typically floppy disks, CDs, DVDs, and USB devices are checked as they can contain installation media for an OS.'' <br /> ** ''If an OS isn’t found, the BIOS will check the MBR/GPT on the first HD.'' <br /> ** ''MBR/GPT may point to the partition where the boot loader found. If this is the case then the partition where the boot loader is found is called the active partition.'' <br /> <br /> ::: '''''See page 347 of the book for the flowchart of the boot process'''''<br /> <br /> :: ''Boot loader – main purpose is to load the OS kernel into memory.'' <br /> ::: '''NOTE:''' ''There can only be one active partition per HD.'' <br /> *Regardless of whether the boot loader is loaded from the MBR/GPT or the active partition the rest of the boot process continues as normal. Which is.. The kernel is executed and loaded into memory. <br /> *After loading the kernel, the boot loader becomes inactive. <br /> *Kernel continues by loading daemons into memory<br /> *Daemons are a system process which performs tasks such as printing scheduling, and OS maintenance. <br /> **The first daemon process is called the initialize (init) daemon. It’s responsible for loading all the other daemons on the system required to bring the system to a usable state where users can interact with it. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Boot Loaders==<br /> <br /> :As mentioned, the primary task of boot loaders is to load the OS kernel into memory. They do secondary tasks as well. This includes passing info the kernel during system startup and booting other OS’s which may be on the HD.<br /> &lt;br /&gt;<br /> ::Using a boot loader to boot one of several OS’s is known as '''dual booting'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === GRUB===<br /> : The most common and only boot loader supported by Fedora 13.<br /> :3 Stages<br /> ::Stage 1 : Generally resides in MBR/GPT and points to Stage 1.5<br /> ::Stages 1.5 : Resides in the /boot/grub directory and loads the file support and loads Stage 2<br /> ::Stage 2 : Also, reside in the /boot/grub directory. This part actually performs the boot loader operations and displayed the graphic boot loader screen. <br /> <br /> ::: This can be configured by editing the config file found at '''(/boot/grub/grub.conf)'''.<br /> ::: This is read by Stage 2, which is located on the partition called GRUB root partition.<br /> ::: To be able to read the info in '''boot/grub/grub.conf''' you must first understand how GRUB refers to partitions on HDs. <br /> : The format used is : ('''hd&lt;drive#&gt;,&lt;partition#&gt;''')<br /> :Examples. <br /> ::'' (hd0,0)'' = 1st HD , 1st Partition<br /> ::''(hd0,1)'' = 1st HD , 2nd Partition<br /> ::''(hd1,2)'' = 2st HD , 3st Partition<br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command :<br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda<br /> <br /> :Should GRUB ever become corrupted, you can reinstall is using the grub-install command on the system or within System Rescue. <br /> <br /> :For example, to install GRUB Stage1 on the 1st SATA HD you’d enter the command line: <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda <br /> :You can also use : <br /> ::[root@server ~]# '''grub-install /dev/sda1<br /> : This is used to install GRUB Stage 1 to the front of the 1st primary part of the HD. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === LILO===<br /> <br /> :This is the traditional boot loader for Linux.<br /> :: No longer supported. <br /> :: Often found on distros which require a smaller boot loader, as well as legacy distros. <br /> :Can reside on the first sector of an active Linux partition, as with GRUB can be found in the MBR/GPT of the HD. When this is the case, when the computer completes the POST and locates LILO, a LILO boot : prompt appears. <br /> :Hitting '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' will display a list of OSs to boot. <br /> <br /> ::: A list of common '''/etc/lilo.conf''' keywords used to edit that file can be found on on page 353 of your book.<br /> <br /> :As robust as LILO is from time to time you may encounter a problem during loading. When this happens you’ll get an error code representing the problem. <br /> <br /> :::A list of commmon LILO error messages can be found on page 354 of your book. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> === Dual Booting Linux===<br /> <br /> :Dual booting is the ability to boot to one of several different Oss which may be available on your computer. Basically the ability to boot a Linux system on the same computer you might also want to use to boot Win 7..or XP. <br /> <br /> ::You can dual boot using either GRUB or LILO.<br /> <br /> ::The recommended procedure to install the other OS(s) prior to installing Linux.<br /> <br /> ::The reason behind this is that Linux will detect the other OS(s) and place the appropriate entry into the boot loader config file.<br /> <br /> :LILO cannot boot load the Window kernel directly. <br /> ::It needs the ''other='' ''''keyword'''' in the '''/etc/lilo.conf''' file to tell it where to find the boot loader for Windows. <br /> <br /> :By adding ''optional'' this prevents the GRUB boot loader from looking for a Linux kernel. This is also followed by the label keyword which just IDs the OS being loaded should you his the '''&lt;TAB&gt;''' key at the LILO prompt. <br /> <br /> '''Alternate way to Dual Boot'''<br /> :You can use a Windows Boot Loader (WBL) the same way you can use a Linux Boot Loader. <br /> <br /> :As it’s not designed to boot the Linux kernel, you need to go into the WBL and modify some some components <br /> <br /> :This can be a bit involved so easier to just install Linux after any other OSs you may also want to Dual Boot. <br /> :Page 358 details what you would need to do if this is how you want to dual boot. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Linux Initialization==<br /> <br /> :After the boot loader loads the Linux OS kernel into memory, the kernel resumes control and executes the first daemon, called ''init'', on the system.<br /> <br /> :: Remember: ''A daemon is a Linux system process that provides a certain service.'' <br /> <br /> :The init daemon uses configuration file, ''/etc/initab'' (short for “init table”) to determine the number of daemons that needs to be loaded on the system.<br /> <br /> :The init daemon is responsible for uploading daemons that are loaded into memory when the system is halted or rebooted.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runlevels===<br /> <br /> :The init daemon often has to manage several daemons at once.<br /> <br /> :Each category is categorized into Runlevels.<br /> <br /> :What is a runlevel? A runlevel defines the number and type of daemons that are loaded into memory and executed by the kernel on a particular system.<br /> <br /> :They are seven standard runlevels:<br /> :: '''0''' ... ''Transitional, Shuts down the system.'' <br /> :::''Should completely power down the system.''<br /> :: '''1''', '''s''', or '''S''' ... ''Single user mode.''<br /> :::''Used for low-level system maintenance impaired by normal system operation.''<br /> :: '''2''' ... ''Full muti-user mode with a graphical login.''<br /> :::''Used on Debian'' <br /> :: '''3''' ... ''Full multi-user mode with a console login.''<br /> :::''Used on Fedora, Mandriva, Red Hat, and most other distributions.'' <br /> :: '''4''' ... ''Undefined by default''<br /> :::''Used for customization''<br /> :: '''5''' ...'' Same as runlevel 3 with the addition of having X run with XDM (graphical) login.''<br /> :: '''6''' ...''Used to reboot the system.''<br /> :::''Also a transitional runlevel.''<br /> <br /> : '''To check out the current and/or previous runlevel.'''<br /> :: Type the runlevel command.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::N=nonexistent<br /> :::5= current runlevel.<br /> <br /> ::To change the runlevel from 5 to 1 type command<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::N 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 1<br /> <br /> ::If you’re in single mode and you want to change the runlevel from 1 back to 5. Type the following command.:<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # init 5<br /> <br /> ::The results are<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> :::S 5<br /> :::[root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> ::Notice that the runlevel command displays the most current and most recent runlevel.<br /> :Unless you specify, the init daemon will run the default runlevel indicated in the '''/etc/inittab file'''.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Runtime config scripts===<br /> <br /> :Scripts that run during the boot process. The purpose is to start daemons and bring the system to a useable state.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Configuring Daemon Setup===<br /> <br /> :Points to the appropriate scripts within the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. <br /> <br /> :Most Daemon scripts accept the arguments '''start, stop,''' and '''restart'''.<br /> <br /> :After system startup you can execute them directly from the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # ''/etc/rc.d/init.d/crond restart''<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :Or you can use the '''service command''' to start, stop or restart any daemons listed in the '''/etc/rc.d/init.d''' directory. To restart the crond daemon type this.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # service cond restart<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::Stopping crond :<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To view and modify daemons that are started in each runlevel, you can use the '''chkconfig''' command.<br /> <br /> :The chkconfig command views and manipulates the appropriate runtime configuration files in the '''/etc/rc.d/rc*.d''' directories.<br /> <br /> :For example the following command indicates the ntpd daemon is not started in any runlevel,<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:off 4:off 5:off 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> :To configure the ntpd daemon to start in runlevels 3 and 5, and to verify the results, you could run the following commands.<br /> <br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – level 35 ntpd on'''<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # '''chkconfig – list ntpd'''<br /> :::ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:on 4:off 5:on 6:off<br /> :::[root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> == X Windows System==<br /> :Components of the Linux GUI<br /> :Graphical Programs (X Clients)<br /> :Desktop environment<br /> :Window Manager<br /> :X Windows<br /> :Video Hardware<br /> <br /> === X Windows===<br /> :Developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1984<br /> :Maintained as Open Source Software by the X.Org Foundation<br /> :The freely available version used in may Linux distributions is called XFree86<br /> <br /> <br /> === Windows Manager and Desktop Environs===<br /> <br /> ::Window managers are used to modify the look and feel of X Windows. <br /> :: Common windows managers can be found on page 370 of your book. <br /> <br /> :'''K Desktop Environment (KDE)'''<br /> ::Released in 1996<br /> ::Uses K Window Manager (kwin) and Qt toolkit<br /> <br /> : '''GNOME'''<br /> :: Created in 1997<br /> :: Uses Metacity Window Manager and GTK+ toolkit<br /> <br /> <br /> === Starting and Stopping X Windows===<br /> <br /> :*GNOME Display Manager writes the chosen desktop environment in the Session menu to a '''.dmrc''' (display manager runtime configuration) file. '''/home/user1/.dmrc''' file<br /> <br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]# '''cat . dmrc''' <br /> :::[Desktop]<br /> :::Session=kde<br /> :::[user1@server1 ~]#_<br /> <br /> :*Root user in not allowed to log into GNOME Display Manager by default.<br /> ::'''/etc/pam.d/gdm''' and '''/etc/pam.d/gdm-password''' <br /> ::# auth required pam_succeed_if.so user !=root quiet<br /> :*GNOME Display Manager can be start manually using the gdm command<br /> <br /> <br /> == Configuring X Windows==<br /> <br /> <br /> ----</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=User_talk:Klae0010&diff=5337 2012-03-16T01:03:16Z

<p>Klae0010: </p> <hr /> <div>Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> Subjects covered:<br /> == Boot Process== <br /> *Power on <br /> *System initializes<br /> *BIOS performs POST (power-on self test)<br /> *BIOS checks configuration and checks for boot devices and an OS to execute<br /> ** ''Typically floppy disks, CDs, DVDs, and USB devices are checked as they can contain installation media for an OS.'' <br /> ** ''If an OS isn’t found, the BIOS will check the MBR/GPT on the first HD.'' <br /> ** ''MBR/GPT may point to the partition where the boot loader found. If this is the case then the partition where the boot loader is found is called the active partition.'' <br /> <br /> ::: '''''See page 347 of the book for the flowchart of the boot process'''''<br /> <br /> :: ''Boot loader – main purpose is to load the OS kernel into memory.'' <br /> ::: '''NOTE:''' ''There can only be one active partition per HD.'' <br /> *Regardless of whether the boot loader is loaded from the MBR/GPT or the active partition the rest of the boot process continues as normal. Which is.. The kernel is executed and loaded into memory. <br /> *After loading the kernel, the boot loader becomes inactive. <br /> *Kernel continues by loading daemons into memory<br /> *Daemons are a system process which performs tasks such as printing scheduling, and OS maintenance. <br /> **The first daemon process is called the initialize (init) daemon. It’s responsible for loading all the other daemons on the system required to bring the system to a usable state where users can interact with it. <br /> <br /> <br /> == Boot Loaders==<br /> === GRUB===<br /> === LILO===<br /> === Dual Booting Linux===<br /> == Linux Initialization==<br /> === Runlevels===<br /> === /etc/inittab file===<br /> === Runtime config scripts===<br /> === Configuring Daemon Setup===<br /> == X Windows System==<br /> === X Windows===<br /> === Windows Manager and Desktop Environs===<br /> === Starting and Stopping X Windows===<br /> == Configuring X Windows==<br /> <br /> <br /> ----</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=User_talk:Klae0010&diff=5336 2012-03-15T23:42:52Z

<p>Klae0010: </p> <hr /> <div>Chapter 8 – System initialization and X-Windows<br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> Subjects covered:<br /> == Boot Process== <br /> == Boot Loaders==<br /> === GRUB===<br /> === LILO===<br /> === Dual Booting Linux===<br /> == Linux Initialization==<br /> === Runlevels===<br /> === /etc/inittab file===<br /> === Runtime config scripts===<br /> === Configuring Daemon Setup===<br /> == X Windows System==<br /> === X Windows===<br /> === Windows Manager and Desktop Environs===<br /> === Starting and Stopping X Windows===<br /> == Configuring X Windows==<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> <br /> Boot Process<br /> - Power on <br /> - System initializes<br /> - BIOS performs POST (power-on self test)<br /> - BIOS checks configuration and checks for boot devices and an OS to execute<br /> o Typically floppy disks, CDs, DVDs, and USB devices are checked as they can contain installation media for an OS. <br /> o If an OS isn’t found, the BIOS will check the MBR/GPT on the first HD. <br /> o MBR/GPT may point to the partition where the boot loader found. If this is the case then the partition where the boot loader is found is called the active partition.* <br /> <br />  Boot loader – main purpose is to load the OS kernel into memory. <br /> <br /> *NOTE: There can only be one active partition per HD. <br /> <br /> o Regardless of whether the boot loader is loaded from the MBR/GPT or the active partition the rest of the boot process continues as normal. Which is.. The kernel is executed and loaded into memory. <br /> o After loading the kernel, the boot loader becomes inactive. <br /> o Kernel continues by loading daemons into memory<br /> o Daemons are a system process which performs tasks such as printing scheduling, and OS maintenance. <br /> o The first daemon process is called the initialize (init) daemon. It’s responsible for loading all the other daemons on the system required to bring the system to a usable state where users can interact with it. <br /> Boot Loaders <br /> • As mentioned, the primary task of boot loaders is to load the OS kernel into memory. They do secondary tasks as well. This includes passing info the kernel during system startup and booting other OS’s which may be on the HD. <br /> o Using a boot loader to boot one of several OS’s is known as dual booting. <br /> Two common boot loaders are : <br /> GRUB (Grand Unified Bootloader) - most common<br /> LILO – (Linux Loader) – Traditional boot loader<br /> <br /> GRUB <br /> Only boot loader supported by Fedora 13.<br /> • 3 Stages<br /> o Stage 1 : Generally resides in MBR/GPT and points to Stage 1.5<br /> o Stages 1.5 : Resides in the /boot/grub directory and loads the file support and loads Stage 2<br /> o Stage 2 : Also, reside in the /boot/grub directory. This part actually performs the boot loader operations and displayed the graphic boot loader screen. <br /> <br /> This can be configured by editing the config file found at (/boot/grub/grub.conf).<br /> This is read by Stage 2, which is located on the partition called GRUB root partition.<br /> To be able to read the info in boot/grub/grub.conf you must first understand how GRUB refers to partitions on HDs. <br /> The format used is : (hd&lt;drive#&gt;,&lt;partition#&gt;)<br /> Examples. <br /> (hd0,0) = 1st HD , 1st Partition<br /> (hd0,1) = 1st HD , 2nd Partition<br /> (hd1,2) = 2st HD , 3st Partition<br /> <br /> Can reside on the first sector of an active Linux partition, as with GRUB can be found in the MBR/GPT of the HD. When this is the case, the computer completes the POST and locates LILO, a LILO boot : prompt appears. <br /> <br /> Hitting &lt;TAB&gt; will display a list of OSs to boot. <br /> <br /> Following this – enter the name of the OS you want or hit &lt;Enter&gt; for the default Linux OS. <br /> <br /> See page for lilo/lilo.conf keywords.<br /> <br /> <br /> As robust as LILO is from time to time you may encounter a problem during loading. When this happens you’ll get an error code representing the problem. <br /> <br /> Dual Booting <br /> <br /> Dual booting is the ability to boot to one of several different Oss which may be available on your computer. Basically the ability to boot a Linux system on the same computer you might also want to use to boot Win 7..or XP. <br /> <br /> You can dual boot using either GRUB or LILO.<br /> <br /> The recommended procedure to install the other OS(s) prior to installing Linux.<br /> <br /> The reason behind this is that Linux will detect the other OS(s) and place the appropriate entry into the boot loader config file.<br /> <br /> LILO cannot boot load the Window kernel directly. <br />  <br /> It needs the other= keyword in the /etc/lilo.conf file to tell it where to find the boot loader for Windows. <br /> <br /> By adding optional this prevents the GRUB boot loader from looking for a Linux kernel. This is also followed by the label keyword which just IDs the OS being loaded should you his the &lt;TAB&gt; key at the LILO prompt. <br /> <br /> Alternative Way to Dual-Boot<br /> <br /> You can use a Windows Boot Loader the same way you can use a Linux Boot Loader. <br /> <br /> Need to modify the Windows boot loader, as it’s not designed to boot the Linux kernel. <br /> <br /> This can be a bit involved so easier to just install Linux after any other OSs you may also want to Dual Boot. <br /> <br /> Linux Initialization <br /> <br /> After the boot loader loads the Linux OS kernel into memory, the kernel resumes control and executes the first daemon, called init, on the system.<br /> <br /> Remember: A daemon is a Linux system process that provides a certain service. <br /> <br /> The init daemon uses configuration file, /etc/initab (short for “init table”) to determine the number of daemons that needs to be loaded on the system.<br /> <br /> The init daemon is responsible for uploading daemons that are loaded into memory when the system is halted or rebooted.<br /> <br /> <br /> The init daemon often has to manage several daemons at once.<br /> <br /> Each category is categorized into Runlevels.<br /> <br /> Runlevels<br /> <br /> What is a runlevel? A runlevel defines the number and type of daemons that are loaded into memory and executed by the kernel on a particular system.<br /> <br /> They are seven standard runlevels which can be views on page ??? of your book. <br /> <br /> To check out the current and/or previous runlevel. Type the runlevel command.<br /> <br /> [root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> N 5<br /> [root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> N=nonexistent<br /> 5= current runlevel.<br /> <br /> To change the runlevel from 5 to 1 type command<br /> <br /> [root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> N 5<br /> [root@server1 ~1] # init 1<br /> <br /> <br /> If you’re in single mode and you want to change the runlevel from 1 back to 5. Type the following command.:<br /> <br /> [root@server1 ~1] # init 5<br /> <br /> The results are<br /> <br /> [root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> [root@server1 ~1] # runlevel<br /> S 5<br /> [root@server1 ~1] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> Notice that the runlevel command displays the most current and most recent runlevel.<br /> Unless you specify, the init daemon will run the default runlevel indicated in the /etc/inittab file.<br /> <br /> Runtime Configuration Scripts<br /> <br /> <br /> Scripts that run during the boot process. The purpose is to start daemons and bring the system to a useable state<br /> <br /> Configuring Daemon Startup<br /> <br /> Points to the appropriate scripts within the /etc/rc.d/init.d directory. <br /> <br /> Most Daemon scripts accept the arguments start, stop, and restart.<br /> <br /> After system startup you can execute them directly from the /etc/rc.d/init.d directory.<br /> <br /> [root@server1 ~] # /etc/rc.d/init.d/crond restart<br /> Stopping crond :<br /> Stopping crond :<br /> [root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> <br /> Or you can use the service command to start, stop or restart any daemons listed in the /etc/rc.d/init.d directory. To restart the crond daemon type this.<br /> <br /> [root@server1 ~] # service cond restart<br /> Stopping crond :<br /> Stopping crond :<br /> [root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> To view and modify daemons that are started in each runlevel, you can use the chkconfig command.<br /> <br /> The chkconfig command views and manipulates the appropriate runtime configuration files in the /etc/rc.d/rc*.d directories.<br /> <br /> For example the following command indicates the ntpd daemon is not started in any runlevel,<br /> <br /> [root@server1 ~] # chkconfig – list ntpd<br /> ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:off 4:off 5:off 6:off<br /> [root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> To configure the ntpd daemon to start in runlevels 3 and 5, and to verify the results, you could run the following commands.<br /> <br /> [root@server1 ~] # chkconfig – level 35 ntpd on<br /> [root@server1 ~] # chkconfig – list ntpd<br /> ntpd 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:on 4:off 5:on 6:off<br /> [root@server1 ~] # _<br /> <br /> X windows<br /> <br /> Developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1984<br /> Is maintained as Open Source Software by the X.Org Foundation<br /> The freely available version used in may Linux distributions is called XFree86<br /> <br /> Window Managers and Desktop Environments <br /> <br /> Window managers are used to look and feel of X Windows. <br /> <br /> Starting and Stopping X-Windows<br /> <br /> GNOME Display Manager writes the chosen desktop environment in the Session menu to a .dmrc (display manager runtime configuration) file. /home/user1/.dmrc file<br /> <br /> [user1@server1 ~]# cat . dmrc <br /> [Desktop]<br /> Session=kde<br /> [user1@server1 ~]#_<br /> <br /> Root user in not allowed to log into GNOME Display Manager by default.<br /> /etc/pam.d/gdm and /etc/pam.d/gdm-password <br /> # auth required pam_succeed_if.so user !=root quiet<br /> GNOME Display Manager can be start manually using the gdm command<br /> <br /> Configuring X-Windows<br /> <br /> X.Org configuration file is /etc/X11/xorg.conf<br /> XFree86 configuration file is /etc/X11/XF86Config <br /> Mouse-test<br /> System-config-keyboard command<br /> System-config-display<br /> Xvidtune to fine tune vertical and horizontal refresh rate.</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=Franske_CNT-2311_SP12_Chapter_Groups&diff=5209 2012-02-10T00:10:32Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Chapter 8 */</p> <hr /> <div>=Chapter 1=<br /> * N/A - Read on Your Own<br /> =Chapter 2=<br /> *Clay Wilson<br /> *Mike Garin<br /> *Rob Klaers<br /> *Todd Baily<br /> =Chapter 3=<br /> *Randy Oye<br /> *Tracy Ryder<br /> *Dave Litke<br /> *Dan Madigan<br /> =Chapter 4=<br /> *Andrew Powell<br /> *Jesse Bruhn<br /> *Sean Bencker<br /> *Scott Pomerleau<br /> *Laprice Ali<br /> =Chapter 5=<br /> *Thu Nguyen<br /> *Tyler Gray<br /> *Jason Backley<br /> *Matt Obermuelle<br /> =Chapter 6=<br /> *Kevin<br /> *George<br /> *Bill<br /> *Ryan<br /> =Chapter 7=<br /> This group can only have three members!<br /> *Jason Backley<br /> *Tyler Gray<br /> *Matt Obermueller<br /> *Thu Nguyen<br /> BAM!!!!!<br /> <br /> =Chapter 8=<br /> * Sean Bencker<br /> *laprice ali<br /> * Rob Klaers<br /> <br /> =Chapter 9=<br /> *Randy Oye<br /> *Dave Litke<br /> *Tracy Stoltz<br /> <br /> =Chapter 10=<br /> *<br /> *<br /> *<br /> =Chapter 11=<br /> *<br /> *<br /> *<br /> =Chapter 12=<br /> * Ben Franske<br /> =Chapter 13=<br /> *<br /> *<br /> *<br /> =Chapter 14=<br /> * Andrew Powell<br /> * Jesse<br /> * Scott</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=ITCwiki:Current_events&diff=5081 2012-01-27T01:04:58Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Chapter 2 Linux Installation and Usage */</p> <hr /> <div>== '''Chapter 2 Linux Installation and Usage''' ==<br /> ::^ Preparation and installation of Fedora Linux using good practices.<br /> ::^ Outline the structure of Linux interface.<br /> ::^ Enter basic shell commands and find command documentation.<br /> ::^ Properly shutdown the Linux OS<br /> <br /> === '''Preparing for Installation''' ===<br /> ::* Hardware Compatibility List (HCL)<br /> ::* The minimum requirement s for Fedora 13 Linux can be found :<br /> :::: ''http://docs.fedoraproject.org''<br /> ::* Preinstallation checklist<br /> ::* A system checklist that can compared against the HCL during installation. <br /> ::* Information will include :<br /> :::• CPU (Type /MHz)<br /> :::• RAM (Mb)<br /> :::• Keyboard model and layout<br /> :::• Hard Disk size (MB)<br /> :::• Host Name<br /> :::• Network card IP configuration<br /> :::• IP address, Netmask Gatway, DNS servers, and DHCP<br /> :::• Linux Packages to install <br /> :::• Video Card Make and Model<br /> :::• Video Card RAM (Mb)<br /> :::• Monitor make and model<br /> :::• Monitor Vsync and HSync ranges<br /> <br /> === '''Installation Methods'''===<br /> ::* FTP server across network<br /> ::* HTTP web server across network<br /> ::* NFS server across network<br /> ::* SMB (SAMBA) server across network<br /> ::* Packages located on HD<br /> ::* CD-ROM or bootable DVD media<br /> <br /> === '''Performing the Installation stages''' ===<br /> ::* Start installation<br /> ::* Choosing language, keyboard and storage type<br /> ::* Selecting hostname, time zone &amp; root password<br /> ::* Configuring storage devices<br /> ::* Configuring the boot loader<br /> ::* Selecting and installing packages<br /> ::* Completing first boot wizard<br /> <br /> === '''Starting the Installation''' ===<br /> ::* '''System Rescue''' – A installation feature used to repair a system from the installation DVD<br /> ::: Can be used to repair a Linux system which cannot be started. <br /> ::* '''Memory Test''' – Can be used to test memory and prevent errors. Uses memtest86 utility to test RAM for errors<br /> <br /> === '''Checking media for errors''' ===<br /> ::* Feature of the default installation<br /> ::* Optional - Good practice with new, unused media<br /> ::* Checks bootable DVD or CD-ROM for errors<br /> <br /> === '''Choosing language, keyboard and storage type''' ===<br /> ::* This is just a matter of choosing the language you’ll be using, <br /> :::your default keyboard layout and whether or not you’ll installing Linux locally or on a DASD (direct access storage device)<br /> <br /> === '''Configuring Storage Devices''' === <br /> :Can only be one of four basic configurations: <br /> ::* Primary master PATA - '''had'''<br /> ::* Primary slave PATA – '''hdb'''<br /> ::* Secondary master PATA – '''hdc'''<br /> ::* Secondary slave PATA – '''hdd'''<br /> :Used by newer server systems typically use :<br /> ::* SATA/SCSI –1st disk= '''sda''', 2nd disk = '''sdb''', 3rd disk= '''sdc''', ect.<br /> ::* Unlike PATA can have more than four hard disks<br /> <br /> === '''Hard Disk Partitioning''' === <br /> ::* Maximum of four primary partitions<br /> ::* Extended Partition can contain unlimited number of smaller partitions or logical drives<br /> ::* Root Directory ('''\''')<br /> ::* Swap memory – Virtual memory utilized when physical memory (RAM) is being exhausted<br /> <br /> === '''Primary Master Partitioning''' === <br /> :Linux only requires two partitions minimum :<br /> ::* '''Root''' directory (main directory) designated by a “\”<br /> ::* '''Swap''' (aka Virtual memory)<br /> ::: '''''NOTE''''' : ''Doesn’t contain a file system and is never mounted to a directory because Linux is responsible for swapping info.'' <br /> ::* Extra partitions help keep the entire system free from errors.<br /> <br /> === '''Basic Linux''' === <br /> ::* '''Kernel''' – Loads all components and controls computing activities, the heart of the operating system<br /> ::: Once the BIOS starts after boot-up, it then starts a boot loader (such as ''GRUB'') which then loads the Linux Kernel into memory. <br /> ::: If there is a windows system already on the HD the boot loader can give you the option of which OS you’d like to load. This is known as dual booting. <br /> ::* '''Terminal''' – Channel that allows users to log in<br /> ::* '''Shell''' – Passes user input to the kernel for processing. BASH shell (Bourne Again Shell) – command-line shell similar to cmd on Windows<br /> <br /> === '''Basic Shell Commands'''=== <br /> ::* ''Commands'' – Case sensitive, indicate program to execute<br /> ::* ''Options'' – specific letters preceded by a hyphen (-) following a command<br /> ::* ''Arguments'' – specify parameters that tailor the command to the users particular needs<br /> :::* Command line order is this.. ''(Command) (Options)(Argument)''<br /> ::::* '''''Ls – a /etc/ntp'''''<br /> ::::: ''Command'' = '''Ls''' (list) <br /> ::::: ''Option'' = '''-a''' (lists all files)<br /> ::::: ''Argument'' = '''/etc/ntp''' (refers to the ''/etc/ntp'' directory)<br /> <br /> === '''Common Commands'''=== <br /> ::*You can find some common commands on page 66 of the text. <br /> <br /> === '''Metacharacters'''=== <br /> ::* Keyboard characters that have a special meaning <br /> ::* ('''$''') – Tells the shell that the following text refers to variable<br /> ::* A piece of information that is stored in memory, typically uppercase words, automatically set by the Linux system at login<br /> ::* There’s a list of metacharacters used in BASH on page 67 of the text<br /> <br /> === '''Help'''=== <br /> ::* Manual pages (man pages)<br /> :::* '''man &lt;command name&gt;'''<br /> ::* Include description, syntax, options, related files, and commands<br /> ::* Search manual pages with a keyword use –k<br /> :::* '''man –k &lt;keyword&gt;'''<br /> ::* Info pages – include easy-to-read description and hyperlinks <br /> <br /> === '''Shutdown Commands'''=== <br /> ::*There’s a list of various shutdown commands on page 73 of the text<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Wiki page credit==<br /> === All info compiled, edited and coded by : Rob Klaers, Clay Wilson, Michael Garin, &amp; Todd Bailly ===<br /> '''NOTE''' : ''all page numbers reference the Linux+ Guide to Linux Certification 3rd Ed. by Jason W. Eckert ISBN 978-1-4188-3721-1''</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=ITCwiki:Current_events&diff=5080 2012-01-27T00:56:56Z

<p>Klae0010: </p> <hr /> <div>== '''Chapter 2 Linux Installation and Usage''' ==<br /> ::^ Preparation and installation of Fedora Linux using good practices.<br /> ::^ Outline the structure of Linux interface.<br /> ::^ Enter basic shell commands and find command documentation.<br /> ::^ Properly shutdown the Linux OS<br /> <br /> === '''Preparing for Installation''' ===<br /> ::* Hardware Compatibility List (HCL)<br /> ::* The minimum requirement s for Fedora 13 Linux can be found :<br /> :::: ''http://docs.fedoraproject.org''<br /> ::* Preinstallation checklist<br /> ::* A system checklist that can compared against the HCL during installation. <br /> ::* Information will include :<br /> :::• CPU (Type /MHz)<br /> :::• RAM (Mb)<br /> :::• Keyboard model and layout<br /> :::• Hard Disk size (MB)<br /> :::• Host Name<br /> :::• Network card IP configuration<br /> :::• IP address, Netmask Gatway, DNS servers, and DHCP<br /> :::• Linux Packages to install <br /> :::• Video Card Make and Model<br /> :::• Video Card RAM (Mb)<br /> :::• Monitor make and model<br /> :::• Monitor Vsync and HSync ranges<br /> <br /> === '''Installation Methods'''===<br /> ::* FTP server across network<br /> ::* HTTP web server across network<br /> ::* NFS server across network<br /> ::* SMB (SAMBA) server across network<br /> ::* Packages located on HD<br /> ::* CD-ROM or bootable DVD media<br /> <br /> === '''Performing the Installation stages''' ===<br /> ::* Start installation<br /> ::* Choosing language, keyboard and storage type<br /> ::* Selecting hostname, time zone &amp; root password<br /> ::* Configuring storage devices<br /> ::* Configuring the boot loader<br /> ::* Selecting and installing packages<br /> ::* Completing first boot wizard<br /> <br /> === '''Starting the Installation''' ===<br /> ::* '''System Rescue''' – A installation feature used to repair a system from the installation DVD<br /> ::: Can be used to repair a Linux system which cannot be started. <br /> ::* '''Memory Test''' – Can be used to test memory and prevent errors. Uses memtest86 utility to test RAM for errors<br /> <br /> === '''Checking media for errors''' ===<br /> ::* Feature of the default installation<br /> ::* Optional - Good practice with new, unused media<br /> ::* Checks bootable DVD or CD-ROM for errors<br /> <br /> === '''Choosing language, keyboard and storage type''' ===<br /> ::* This is just a matter of choosing the language you’ll be using, <br /> :::your default keyboard layout and whether or not you’ll installing Linux locally or on a DASD (direct access storage device)<br /> <br /> === '''Configuring Storage Devices''' === <br /> :Can only be one of four basic configurations: <br /> ::* Primary master PATA - '''had'''<br /> ::* Primary slave PATA – '''hdb'''<br /> ::* Secondary master PATA – '''hdc'''<br /> ::* Secondary slave PATA – '''hdd'''<br /> :Used by newer server systems typically use :<br /> ::* SATA/SCSI –1st disk= '''sda''', 2nd disk = '''sdb''', 3rd disk= '''sdc''', ect.<br /> ::* Unlike PATA can have more than four hard disks<br /> <br /> === '''Hard Disk Partitioning''' === <br /> ::* Maximum of four primary partitions<br /> ::* Extended Partition can contain unlimited number of smaller partitions or logical drives<br /> ::* Root Directory ('''\''')<br /> ::* Swap memory – Virtual memory utilized when physical memory (RAM) is being exhausted<br /> <br /> === '''Primary Master Partitioning''' === <br /> :Linux only requires two partitions minimum :<br /> ::* '''Root''' directory (main directory) designated by a “\”<br /> ::* '''Swap''' (aka Virtual memory)<br /> ::: '''''NOTE''''' : ''Doesn’t contain a file system and is never mounted to a directory because Linux is responsible for swapping info.'' <br /> ::* Extra partitions help keep the entire system free from errors.<br /> <br /> === '''Basic Linux''' === <br /> ::* '''Kernel''' – Loads all components and controls computing activities, the heart of the operating system<br /> ::: Once the BIOS starts after boot-up, it then starts a boot loader (such as ''GRUB'') which then loads the Linux Kernel into memory. <br /> ::: If there is a windows system already on the HD the boot loader can give you the option of which OS you’d like to load. This is known as dual booting. <br /> ::* '''Terminal''' – Channel that allows users to log in<br /> ::* '''Shell''' – Passes user input to the kernel for processing. BASH shell (Bourne Again Shell) – command-line shell similar to cmd on Windows<br /> <br /> === '''Basic Shell Commands'''=== <br /> ::* ''Commands'' – Case sensitive, indicate program to execute<br /> ::* ''Options'' – specific letters preceded by a hyphen (-) following a command<br /> ::* ''Arguments'' – specify parameters that tailor the command to the users particular needs<br /> :::* Command line order is this.. ''(Command) (Options)(Argument)''<br /> ::::* '''''Ls – a /etc/ntp'''''<br /> ::::: ''Command'' = '''Ls''' (list) <br /> ::::: ''Option'' = '''-a''' (lists all files)<br /> ::::: ''Argument'' = '''/etc/ntp''' (refers to the ''/etc/ntp'' directory)<br /> <br /> === '''Common Commands'''=== <br /> ::*You can find some common commands on page 66 of the text. <br /> <br /> === '''Metacharacters'''=== <br /> ::* Keyboard characters that have a special meaning <br /> ::* ('''$''') – Tells the shell that the following text refers to variable<br /> ::* A piece of information that is stored in memory, typically uppercase words, automatically set by the Linux system at login<br /> ::* There’s a list of metacharacters used in BASH on page 67 of the text<br /> <br /> === '''Help'''=== <br /> ::* Manual pages (man pages)<br /> :::* '''man &lt;command name&gt;'''<br /> ::* Include description, syntax, options, related files, and commands<br /> ::* Search manual pages with a keyword use –k<br /> :::* '''man –k &lt;keyword&gt;'''<br /> ::* Info pages – include easy-to-read description and hyperlinks <br /> <br /> === '''Shutdown Commands'''=== <br /> ::*There’s a list of various shutdown commands on page 73 of the text<br /> <br /> ==== All info compiled, edited and coded by : Rob Klaers, Clay Wilson, Michael Garin, &amp; Todd Bailly ====</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=ITCwiki:Current_events&diff=5079 2012-01-27T00:54:25Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Chapter 2 Linux Installation and Usage */</p> <hr /> <div>== '''Chapter 2 Linux Installation and Usage''' ==<br /> ::^ Preparation and installation of Fedora Linux using good practices.<br /> ::^ Outline the structure of Linux interface.<br /> ::^ Enter basic shell commands and find command documentation.<br /> ::^ Properly shutdown the Linux OS<br /> <br /> === '''Preparing for Installation''' ===<br /> ::* Hardware Compatibility List (HCL)<br /> ::* The minimum requirement s for Fedora 13 Linux can be found :<br /> :::: ''http://docs.fedoraproject.org''<br /> ::* Preinstallation checklist<br /> ::* A system checklist that can compared against the HCL during installation. <br /> ::* Information will include :<br /> :::• CPU (Type /MHz)<br /> :::• RAM (Mb)<br /> :::• Keyboard model and layout<br /> :::• Hard Disk size (MB)<br /> :::• Host Name<br /> :::• Network card IP configuration<br /> :::• IP address, Netmask Gatway, DNS servers, and DHCP<br /> :::• Linux Packages to install <br /> :::• Video Card Make and Model<br /> :::• Video Card RAM (Mb)<br /> :::• Monitor make and model<br /> :::• Monitor Vsync and HSync ranges<br /> <br /> === '''Installation Methods'''===<br /> ::* FTP server across network<br /> ::* HTTP web server across network<br /> ::* NFS server across network<br /> ::* SMB (SAMBA) server across network<br /> ::* Packages located on HD<br /> ::* CD-ROM or bootable DVD media<br /> <br /> === '''Performing the Installation stages''' ===<br /> ::* Start installation<br /> ::* Choosing language, keyboard and storage type<br /> ::* Selecting hostname, time zone &amp; root password<br /> ::* Configuring storage devices<br /> ::* Configuring the boot loader<br /> ::* Selecting and installing packages<br /> ::* Completing first boot wizard<br /> <br /> === '''Starting the Installation''' ===<br /> ::* '''System Rescue''' – A installation feature used to repair a system from the installation DVD<br /> ::: Can be used to repair a Linux system which cannot be started. <br /> ::* '''Memory Test''' – Can be used to test memory and prevent errors. Uses memtest86 utility to test RAM for errors<br /> <br /> === '''Checking media for errors''' ===<br /> ::* Feature of the default installation<br /> ::* Optional - Good practice with new, unused media<br /> ::* Checks bootable DVD or CD-ROM for errors<br /> <br /> === '''Choosing language, keyboard and storage type''' ===<br /> ::* This is just a matter of choosing the language you’ll be using, <br /> :::your default keyboard layout and whether or not you’ll installing Linux locally or on a DASD (direct access storage device)<br /> <br /> === '''Configuring Storage Devices''' === <br /> :Can only be one of four basic configurations: <br /> ::* Primary master PATA - '''had'''<br /> ::* Primary slave PATA – '''hdb'''<br /> ::* Secondary master PATA – '''hdc'''<br /> ::* Secondary slave PATA – '''hdd'''<br /> :Used by newer server systems typically use :<br /> ::* SATA/SCSI –1st disk= '''sda''', 2nd disk = '''sdb''', 3rd disk= '''sdc''', ect.<br /> ::* Unlike PATA can have more than four hard disks<br /> <br /> === '''Hard Disk Partitioning''' === <br /> ::* Maximum of four primary partitions<br /> ::* Extended Partition can contain unlimited number of smaller partitions or logical drives<br /> ::* Root Directory ('''\''')<br /> ::* Swap memory – Virtual memory utilized when physical memory (RAM) is being exhausted<br /> <br /> === '''Primary Master Partitioning''' === <br /> :Linux only requires two partitions minimum :<br /> ::* '''Root''' directory (main directory) designated by a “\”<br /> ::* '''Swap''' (aka Virtual memory)<br /> ::: '''''NOTE''''' : ''Doesn’t contain a file system and is never mounted to a directory because Linux is responsible for swapping info.'' <br /> ::* Extra partitions help keep the entire system free from errors.<br /> <br /> === '''Basic Linux''' === <br /> ::* '''Kernel''' – Loads all components and controls computing activities, the heart of the operating system<br /> ::: Once the BIOS starts after boot-up, it then starts a boot loader (such as ''GRUB'') which then loads the Linux Kernel into memory. <br /> ::: If there is a windows system already on the HD the boot loader can give you the option of which OS you’d like to load. This is known as dual booting. <br /> ::* '''Terminal''' – Channel that allows users to log in<br /> ::* '''Shell''' – Passes user input to the kernel for processing. BASH shell (Bourne Again Shell) – command-line shell similar to cmd on Windows<br /> <br /> === '''Basic Shell Commands'''=== <br /> ::* ''Commands'' – Case sensitive, indicate program to execute<br /> ::* ''Options'' – specific letters preceded by a hyphen (-) following a command<br /> ::* ''Arguments'' – specify parameters that tailor the command to the users particular needs<br /> :::* Command line order is this.. ''(Command) (Options)(Argument)''<br /> ::::* '''''Ls – a /etc/ntp'''''<br /> ::::: ''Command'' = '''Ls''' (list) <br /> ::::: ''Option'' = '''-a''' (lists all files)<br /> ::::: ''Argument'' = '''/etc/ntp''' (refers to the ''/etc/ntp'' directory)<br /> <br /> === '''Common Commands'''=== <br /> ::*You can find some common commands on page 66 of the text. <br /> <br /> === '''Metacharacters'''=== <br /> ::* Keyboard characters that have a special meaning <br /> ::* ('''$''') – Tells the shell that the following text refers to variable<br /> ::* A piece of information that is stored in memory, typically uppercase words, automatically set by the Linux system at login<br /> ::* There’s a list of metacharacters used in BASH on page 67 of the text<br /> <br /> === '''Help'''=== <br /> ::* Manual pages (man pages)<br /> :::* '''man &lt;command name&gt;'''<br /> ::* Include description, syntax, options, related files, and commands<br /> ::* Search manual pages with a keyword use –k<br /> :::* '''man –k &lt;keyword&gt;'''<br /> ::* Info pages – include easy-to-read description and hyperlinks <br /> <br /> === '''Shutdown Commands'''=== <br /> ::*There’s a list of various shutdown commands on page 73 of the text</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=ITCwiki:Current_events&diff=5078 2012-01-27T00:54:06Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Chapter 2 Linux Installation and Usage */</p> <hr /> <div>== '''Chapter 2 Linux Installation and Usage''' ==<br /> ::$ Preparation and installation of Fedora Linux using good practices.<br /> ::* Outline the structure of Linux interface.<br /> ::* Enter basic shell commands and find command documentation.<br /> ::* Properly shutdown the Linux OS<br /> <br /> === '''Preparing for Installation''' ===<br /> ::* Hardware Compatibility List (HCL)<br /> ::* The minimum requirement s for Fedora 13 Linux can be found :<br /> :::: ''http://docs.fedoraproject.org''<br /> ::* Preinstallation checklist<br /> ::* A system checklist that can compared against the HCL during installation. <br /> ::* Information will include :<br /> :::• CPU (Type /MHz)<br /> :::• RAM (Mb)<br /> :::• Keyboard model and layout<br /> :::• Hard Disk size (MB)<br /> :::• Host Name<br /> :::• Network card IP configuration<br /> :::• IP address, Netmask Gatway, DNS servers, and DHCP<br /> :::• Linux Packages to install <br /> :::• Video Card Make and Model<br /> :::• Video Card RAM (Mb)<br /> :::• Monitor make and model<br /> :::• Monitor Vsync and HSync ranges<br /> <br /> === '''Installation Methods'''===<br /> ::* FTP server across network<br /> ::* HTTP web server across network<br /> ::* NFS server across network<br /> ::* SMB (SAMBA) server across network<br /> ::* Packages located on HD<br /> ::* CD-ROM or bootable DVD media<br /> <br /> === '''Performing the Installation stages''' ===<br /> ::* Start installation<br /> ::* Choosing language, keyboard and storage type<br /> ::* Selecting hostname, time zone &amp; root password<br /> ::* Configuring storage devices<br /> ::* Configuring the boot loader<br /> ::* Selecting and installing packages<br /> ::* Completing first boot wizard<br /> <br /> === '''Starting the Installation''' ===<br /> ::* '''System Rescue''' – A installation feature used to repair a system from the installation DVD<br /> ::: Can be used to repair a Linux system which cannot be started. <br /> ::* '''Memory Test''' – Can be used to test memory and prevent errors. Uses memtest86 utility to test RAM for errors<br /> <br /> === '''Checking media for errors''' ===<br /> ::* Feature of the default installation<br /> ::* Optional - Good practice with new, unused media<br /> ::* Checks bootable DVD or CD-ROM for errors<br /> <br /> === '''Choosing language, keyboard and storage type''' ===<br /> ::* This is just a matter of choosing the language you’ll be using, <br /> :::your default keyboard layout and whether or not you’ll installing Linux locally or on a DASD (direct access storage device)<br /> <br /> === '''Configuring Storage Devices''' === <br /> :Can only be one of four basic configurations: <br /> ::* Primary master PATA - '''had'''<br /> ::* Primary slave PATA – '''hdb'''<br /> ::* Secondary master PATA – '''hdc'''<br /> ::* Secondary slave PATA – '''hdd'''<br /> :Used by newer server systems typically use :<br /> ::* SATA/SCSI –1st disk= '''sda''', 2nd disk = '''sdb''', 3rd disk= '''sdc''', ect.<br /> ::* Unlike PATA can have more than four hard disks<br /> <br /> === '''Hard Disk Partitioning''' === <br /> ::* Maximum of four primary partitions<br /> ::* Extended Partition can contain unlimited number of smaller partitions or logical drives<br /> ::* Root Directory ('''\''')<br /> ::* Swap memory – Virtual memory utilized when physical memory (RAM) is being exhausted<br /> <br /> === '''Primary Master Partitioning''' === <br /> :Linux only requires two partitions minimum :<br /> ::* '''Root''' directory (main directory) designated by a “\”<br /> ::* '''Swap''' (aka Virtual memory)<br /> ::: '''''NOTE''''' : ''Doesn’t contain a file system and is never mounted to a directory because Linux is responsible for swapping info.'' <br /> ::* Extra partitions help keep the entire system free from errors.<br /> <br /> === '''Basic Linux''' === <br /> ::* '''Kernel''' – Loads all components and controls computing activities, the heart of the operating system<br /> ::: Once the BIOS starts after boot-up, it then starts a boot loader (such as ''GRUB'') which then loads the Linux Kernel into memory. <br /> ::: If there is a windows system already on the HD the boot loader can give you the option of which OS you’d like to load. This is known as dual booting. <br /> ::* '''Terminal''' – Channel that allows users to log in<br /> ::* '''Shell''' – Passes user input to the kernel for processing. BASH shell (Bourne Again Shell) – command-line shell similar to cmd on Windows<br /> <br /> === '''Basic Shell Commands'''=== <br /> ::* ''Commands'' – Case sensitive, indicate program to execute<br /> ::* ''Options'' – specific letters preceded by a hyphen (-) following a command<br /> ::* ''Arguments'' – specify parameters that tailor the command to the users particular needs<br /> :::* Command line order is this.. ''(Command) (Options)(Argument)''<br /> ::::* '''''Ls – a /etc/ntp'''''<br /> ::::: ''Command'' = '''Ls''' (list) <br /> ::::: ''Option'' = '''-a''' (lists all files)<br /> ::::: ''Argument'' = '''/etc/ntp''' (refers to the ''/etc/ntp'' directory)<br /> <br /> === '''Common Commands'''=== <br /> ::*You can find some common commands on page 66 of the text. <br /> <br /> === '''Metacharacters'''=== <br /> ::* Keyboard characters that have a special meaning <br /> ::* ('''$''') – Tells the shell that the following text refers to variable<br /> ::* A piece of information that is stored in memory, typically uppercase words, automatically set by the Linux system at login<br /> ::* There’s a list of metacharacters used in BASH on page 67 of the text<br /> <br /> === '''Help'''=== <br /> ::* Manual pages (man pages)<br /> :::* '''man &lt;command name&gt;'''<br /> ::* Include description, syntax, options, related files, and commands<br /> ::* Search manual pages with a keyword use –k<br /> :::* '''man –k &lt;keyword&gt;'''<br /> ::* Info pages – include easy-to-read description and hyperlinks <br /> <br /> === '''Shutdown Commands'''=== <br /> ::*There’s a list of various shutdown commands on page 73 of the text</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=ITCwiki:Current_events&diff=5077 2012-01-27T00:53:52Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Chapter 2 Linux Installation and Usage */</p> <hr /> <div>== '''Chapter 2 Linux Installation and Usage''' ==<br /> ::@ Preparation and installation of Fedora Linux using good practices.<br /> ::* Outline the structure of Linux interface.<br /> ::* Enter basic shell commands and find command documentation.<br /> ::* Properly shutdown the Linux OS<br /> <br /> === '''Preparing for Installation''' ===<br /> ::* Hardware Compatibility List (HCL)<br /> ::* The minimum requirement s for Fedora 13 Linux can be found :<br /> :::: ''http://docs.fedoraproject.org''<br /> ::* Preinstallation checklist<br /> ::* A system checklist that can compared against the HCL during installation. <br /> ::* Information will include :<br /> :::• CPU (Type /MHz)<br /> :::• RAM (Mb)<br /> :::• Keyboard model and layout<br /> :::• Hard Disk size (MB)<br /> :::• Host Name<br /> :::• Network card IP configuration<br /> :::• IP address, Netmask Gatway, DNS servers, and DHCP<br /> :::• Linux Packages to install <br /> :::• Video Card Make and Model<br /> :::• Video Card RAM (Mb)<br /> :::• Monitor make and model<br /> :::• Monitor Vsync and HSync ranges<br /> <br /> === '''Installation Methods'''===<br /> ::* FTP server across network<br /> ::* HTTP web server across network<br /> ::* NFS server across network<br /> ::* SMB (SAMBA) server across network<br /> ::* Packages located on HD<br /> ::* CD-ROM or bootable DVD media<br /> <br /> === '''Performing the Installation stages''' ===<br /> ::* Start installation<br /> ::* Choosing language, keyboard and storage type<br /> ::* Selecting hostname, time zone &amp; root password<br /> ::* Configuring storage devices<br /> ::* Configuring the boot loader<br /> ::* Selecting and installing packages<br /> ::* Completing first boot wizard<br /> <br /> === '''Starting the Installation''' ===<br /> ::* '''System Rescue''' – A installation feature used to repair a system from the installation DVD<br /> ::: Can be used to repair a Linux system which cannot be started. <br /> ::* '''Memory Test''' – Can be used to test memory and prevent errors. Uses memtest86 utility to test RAM for errors<br /> <br /> === '''Checking media for errors''' ===<br /> ::* Feature of the default installation<br /> ::* Optional - Good practice with new, unused media<br /> ::* Checks bootable DVD or CD-ROM for errors<br /> <br /> === '''Choosing language, keyboard and storage type''' ===<br /> ::* This is just a matter of choosing the language you’ll be using, <br /> :::your default keyboard layout and whether or not you’ll installing Linux locally or on a DASD (direct access storage device)<br /> <br /> === '''Configuring Storage Devices''' === <br /> :Can only be one of four basic configurations: <br /> ::* Primary master PATA - '''had'''<br /> ::* Primary slave PATA – '''hdb'''<br /> ::* Secondary master PATA – '''hdc'''<br /> ::* Secondary slave PATA – '''hdd'''<br /> :Used by newer server systems typically use :<br /> ::* SATA/SCSI –1st disk= '''sda''', 2nd disk = '''sdb''', 3rd disk= '''sdc''', ect.<br /> ::* Unlike PATA can have more than four hard disks<br /> <br /> === '''Hard Disk Partitioning''' === <br /> ::* Maximum of four primary partitions<br /> ::* Extended Partition can contain unlimited number of smaller partitions or logical drives<br /> ::* Root Directory ('''\''')<br /> ::* Swap memory – Virtual memory utilized when physical memory (RAM) is being exhausted<br /> <br /> === '''Primary Master Partitioning''' === <br /> :Linux only requires two partitions minimum :<br /> ::* '''Root''' directory (main directory) designated by a “\”<br /> ::* '''Swap''' (aka Virtual memory)<br /> ::: '''''NOTE''''' : ''Doesn’t contain a file system and is never mounted to a directory because Linux is responsible for swapping info.'' <br /> ::* Extra partitions help keep the entire system free from errors.<br /> <br /> === '''Basic Linux''' === <br /> ::* '''Kernel''' – Loads all components and controls computing activities, the heart of the operating system<br /> ::: Once the BIOS starts after boot-up, it then starts a boot loader (such as ''GRUB'') which then loads the Linux Kernel into memory. <br /> ::: If there is a windows system already on the HD the boot loader can give you the option of which OS you’d like to load. This is known as dual booting. <br /> ::* '''Terminal''' – Channel that allows users to log in<br /> ::* '''Shell''' – Passes user input to the kernel for processing. BASH shell (Bourne Again Shell) – command-line shell similar to cmd on Windows<br /> <br /> === '''Basic Shell Commands'''=== <br /> ::* ''Commands'' – Case sensitive, indicate program to execute<br /> ::* ''Options'' – specific letters preceded by a hyphen (-) following a command<br /> ::* ''Arguments'' – specify parameters that tailor the command to the users particular needs<br /> :::* Command line order is this.. ''(Command) (Options)(Argument)''<br /> ::::* '''''Ls – a /etc/ntp'''''<br /> ::::: ''Command'' = '''Ls''' (list) <br /> ::::: ''Option'' = '''-a''' (lists all files)<br /> ::::: ''Argument'' = '''/etc/ntp''' (refers to the ''/etc/ntp'' directory)<br /> <br /> === '''Common Commands'''=== <br /> ::*You can find some common commands on page 66 of the text. <br /> <br /> === '''Metacharacters'''=== <br /> ::* Keyboard characters that have a special meaning <br /> ::* ('''$''') – Tells the shell that the following text refers to variable<br /> ::* A piece of information that is stored in memory, typically uppercase words, automatically set by the Linux system at login<br /> ::* There’s a list of metacharacters used in BASH on page 67 of the text<br /> <br /> === '''Help'''=== <br /> ::* Manual pages (man pages)<br /> :::* '''man &lt;command name&gt;'''<br /> ::* Include description, syntax, options, related files, and commands<br /> ::* Search manual pages with a keyword use –k<br /> :::* '''man –k &lt;keyword&gt;'''<br /> ::* Info pages – include easy-to-read description and hyperlinks <br /> <br /> === '''Shutdown Commands'''=== <br /> ::*There’s a list of various shutdown commands on page 73 of the text</div>

Klae0010 https://wiki.ihitc.net/mediawiki/index.php?title=ITCwiki:Current_events&diff=5076 2012-01-27T00:52:52Z

<p>Klae0010: /* Hard Disk Partitioning */</p> <hr /> <div>== '''Chapter 2 Linux Installation and Usage''' ==<br /> ::* Preparation and installation of Fedora Linux using good practices.<br /> ::* Outline the structure of Linux interface.<br /> ::* Enter basic shell commands and find command documentation.<br /> ::* Properly shutdown the Linux OS<br /> <br /> === '''Preparing for Installation''' ===<br /> ::* Hardware Compatibility List (HCL)<br /> ::* The minimum requirement s for Fedora 13 Linux can be found :<br /> :::: ''http://docs.fedoraproject.org''<br /> ::* Preinstallation checklist<br /> ::* A system checklist that can compared against the HCL during installation. <br /> ::* Information will include :<br /> :::• CPU (Type /MHz)<br /> :::• RAM (Mb)<br /> :::• Keyboard model and layout<br /> :::• Hard Disk size (MB)<br /> :::• Host Name<br /> :::• Network card IP configuration<br /> :::• IP address, Netmask Gatway, DNS servers, and DHCP<br /> :::• Linux Packages to install <br /> :::• Video Card Make and Model<br /> :::• Video Card RAM (Mb)<br /> :::• Monitor make and model<br /> :::• Monitor Vsync and HSync ranges<br /> <br /> === '''Installation Methods'''===<br /> ::* FTP server across network<br /> ::* HTTP web server across network<br /> ::* NFS server across network<br /> ::* SMB (SAMBA) server across network<br /> ::* Packages located on HD<br /> ::* CD-ROM or bootable DVD media<br /> <br /> === '''Performing the Installation stages''' ===<br /> ::* Start installation<br /> ::* Choosing language, keyboard and storage type<br /> ::* Selecting hostname, time zone &amp; root password<br /> ::* Configuring storage devices<br /> ::* Configuring the boot loader<br /> ::* Selecting and installing packages<br /> ::* Completing first boot wizard<br /> <br /> === '''Starting the Installation''' ===<br /> ::* '''System Rescue''' – A installation feature used to repair a system from the installation DVD<br /> ::: Can be used to repair a Linux system which cannot be started. <br /> ::* '''Memory Test''' – Can be used to test memory and prevent errors. Uses memtest86 utility to test RAM for errors<br /> <br /> === '''Checking media for errors''' ===<br /> ::* Feature of the default installation<br /> ::* Optional - Good practice with new, unused media<br /> ::* Checks bootable DVD or CD-ROM for errors<br /> <br /> === '''Choosing language, keyboard and storage type''' ===<br /> ::* This is just a matter of choosing the language you’ll be using, <br /> :::your default keyboard layout and whether or not you’ll installing Linux locally or on a DASD (direct access storage device)<br /> <br /> === '''Configuring Storage Devices''' === <br /> :Can only be one of four basic configurations: <br /> ::* Primary master PATA - '''had'''<br /> ::* Primary slave PATA – '''hdb'''<br /> ::* Secondary master PATA – '''hdc'''<br /> ::* Secondary slave PATA – '''hdd'''<br /> :Used by newer server systems typically use :<br /> ::* SATA/SCSI –1st disk= '''sda''', 2nd disk = '''sdb''', 3rd disk= '''sdc''', ect.<br /> ::* Unlike PATA can have more than four hard disks<br /> <br /> === '''Hard Disk Partitioning''' === <br /> ::* Maximum of four primary partitions<br /> ::* Extended Partition can contain unlimited number of smaller partitions or logical drives<br /> ::* Root Directory ('''\''')<br /> ::* Swap memory – Virtual memory utilized when physical memory (RAM) is being exhausted<br /> <br /> === '''Primary Master Partitioning''' === <br /> :Linux only requires two partitions minimum :<br /> ::* '''Root''' directory (main directory) designated by a “\”<br /> ::* '''Swap''' (aka Virtual memory)<br /> ::: '''''NOTE''''' : ''Doesn’t contain a file system and is never mounted to a directory because Linux is responsible for swapping info.'' <br /> ::* Extra partitions help keep the entire system free from errors.<br /> <br /> === '''Basic Linux''' === <br /> ::* '''Kernel''' – Loads all components and controls computing activities, the heart of the operating system<br /> ::: Once the BIOS starts after boot-up, it then starts a boot loader (such as ''GRUB'') which then loads the Linux Kernel into memory. <br /> ::: If there is a windows system already on the HD the boot loader can give you the option of which OS you’d like to load. This is known as dual booting. <br /> ::* '''Terminal''' – Channel that allows users to log in<br /> ::* '''Shell''' – Passes user input to the kernel for processing. BASH shell (Bourne Again Shell) – command-line shell similar to cmd on Windows<br /> <br /> === '''Basic Shell Commands'''=== <br /> ::* ''Commands'' – Case sensitive, indicate program to execute<br /> ::* ''Options'' – specific letters preceded by a hyphen (-) following a command<br /> ::* ''Arguments'' – specify parameters that tailor the command to the users particular needs<br /> :::* Command line order is this.. ''(Command) (Options)(Argument)''<br /> ::::* '''''Ls – a /etc/ntp'''''<br /> ::::: ''Command'' = '''Ls''' (list) <br /> ::::: ''Option'' = '''-a''' (lists all files)<br /> ::::: ''Argument'' = '''/etc/ntp''' (refers to the ''/etc/ntp'' directory)<br /> <br /> === '''Common Commands'''=== <br /> ::*You can find some common commands on page 66 of the text. <br /> <br /> === '''Metacharacters'''=== <br /> ::* Keyboard characters that have a special meaning <br /> ::* ('''$''') – Tells the shell that the following text refers to variable<br /> ::* A piece of information that is stored in memory, typically uppercase words, automatically set by the Linux system at login<br /> ::* There’s a list of metacharacters used in BASH on page 67 of the text<br /> <br /> === '''Help'''=== <br /> ::* Manual pages (man pages)<br /> :::* '''man &lt;command name&gt;'''<br /> ::* Include description, syntax, options, related files, and commands<br /> ::* Search manual pages with a keyword use –k<br /> :::* '''man –k &lt;keyword&gt;'''<br /> ::* Info pages – include easy-to-read description and hyperlinks <br /> <br /> === '''Shutdown Commands'''=== <br /> ::*There’s a list of various shutdown commands on page 73 of the text</div>

Klae0010